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19663 


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PRINCIPLES 


OF 


ECONOMIC  ZOOLOGY 

PART  I 

Field  and  Laboratory  Guide 


BY 

L.  S.  DAUGHERTY.  M.S.,  Ph.  D. 

PROFESSOR    OF    ZOOLOGY,    STATE    NORMAL    SCHOOL,    KIRKSVILLE,    MO. 

AND 

M.  C.  DAUGHERTY 

AUTHOR    WITH    JACKSON    OF    "AGRICULTURE    THROWJH     THE    LABORATORY 
AND    SCHOOL    GARDEN" 


PHILADELPHIA  AND  LONDON 

W.    B.    SAUNDERS    COMPANY 

1912 


Copyright,  1912,  by  W.  B.  Saunders  Company 


PRINTED    IN    AMERICA 

PRESS    OF 

W.     B.     SAUNDERS     COMPANY 

PHILADELPHIA 


PREFACE 


A  SATISFACTORY  course  in  Zoology  requires  field,  laboratory, 
and  text-book  work  on  a  series  of  typical  animals.  This 
method  will  bring  the  student  into  contact  with  the  animal 
world  in  its  manifold  relations. 

The  teacher  may  follow  any  order  which  he  prefers,  but  the 
studies  in  this  guide  are  arranged  with  a  view  to  seasonal 
supply.  Insects  are  plentiful  and  easily  obtained  by  the 
class  in  the  fall,  while  fishes,  frogs,  and  turtles  may  be  kept 
in  aquaria  or  purchased  at  any  time  from  dealers  in  zoologic 
supplies.  Also,  the  dissection  of  the  vertebrate  forms  is  less 
unpleasant  in  the  winter.  Earthworms  and  lower  forms  may 
be  obtained  in  the  spring. 

Zoology  is  a  study  of  animals  and  not  information  about 
animals.  As  Ruskin  says,  ''  the  greatest  thing  in  the  world  is 
for  a  man  to  see  something  and  to  tell  clearly  what  he  saw." 
It  is  intended  that  the  student  find  his  answers  in  the  animal 
before  him. 

Things  he  cannot  get  from  the  animal  in  the  laboratory  he 
should  get  from  the  study  of  the  animal  in  the  field,  or,  where 
this  is  impossible,  from  descriptive  zoologies.  ''Principles  of 
Economic  Zoology,"  Part  II,  is  intended  to  supply  this  need. 

In  the  preparation  of  these  studies,  helpful  suggestions  have 
been  used  from  time  to  time  from  various  authors,  but  they 
are  largely  the  result  of  many  years'  teaching  of  Zoology,  of 
personal  investigation,  of  travel  and  observation  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  and  in  the  best  schools  of  Europe. 

The  Authors. 

IviRKSViLLE,  Mo.,  November,  1912. 


a^^\h^ 


T 


19663 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

To  THE  Teacher 1 

To  THE  Student 2 

The  Laboratory 3 

Plan  for  Using  Laboratory  Studies  of  Typic  Animals 5 

Laboratory  Studies  Upon  Typic  Animals G 

General  Preliminary  Study,  0. — Ecologie  or  Environment 
Study,  S. — Animal  Behavior,  12. — Morphologic  Study,  IS. — 
Classification  or  Systematic  Study,  IS. — Final  Oral  or  Written 
Study.  IS. 

Crustacea 2S 

Study  of  Live  Crayfish,  2S. — Morphophysiologic  Study  of  the 
Crayfish,  32. — Mounting  a  Crayfish,  44. 

Arachnida  (the  Spider") 4S 

Morphophysiologic  Study  oi  the  Spider,  4S. 

Insecta o2 

Collection  of  Insects  Required  of  Each  Student,  52. — Life- 
history,  62. — Spraj's  and  Spraying,  66.  Insect  Studies:  The 
Grasshopper,  70.— The  Butterfly.  S6.— The  Honey  Bee  or  the 
Bumble  Bee,  90.— The  House  Fly.  02.  Hemiptera:  The  Squash 
Bug  or  the  Cicada.  96.— The  Beetle.  9S.— Systematic  Study  for 
Branch  Arthropoda.  104. — Systematic  Study  for  the  Classes  of 
Arthropoda.  104.— Ordinal  Study  for  Class  Insecta,  106.— Com- 
parative Systematic  Study,  lOS. 

Pisces  (the  Fish) 112 

Study  of  a  Live  Fish,  112.— The  Sunfish,  116. 

V 


VI  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Study  of  Chordate  Branch  Characteristics 128 

Study  of  Chordate  Class  Characteristics,  128. 

Amphibia  (the  Frog) 132 

Study  of  the  Live  Frog,  132. 

Reptilia  (the  Turtle) 152 

Study  of  the  Live  Turtle,  152. 

Ayes  (the  Bird) 174 

Study  of  Live  Birds,  174. 

Mammalia  (the  Rabbit) 200 

Study  of  a  Live  Rabbit,  200. — Systematic  Study  of  the  Rabbit, 
218. 

Man 222 

Morphophysiologic  Study,  222. 

Protozoa 226 

Morphophysiologic  Study,  226. 

PORIFERA 230 

Morphophysiologic  Study,  230. 

CCELENTERATA 234 

Morphophysiologic  Study,  234. — Systematic  Study,  238. 

Echinodermata  (the  Starfish) 240 

Morphophysiologic  Study,  240. — Systematic  Study,  246. 

Annulata 248 

Study  of  Live  Earthworms,  248. — Morphophysiologic  Study, 
252. 

MOLLUSCA 260 

Study  of  a  Live  Fresh-water  Clam  or  Mussel,  260. — Morpho- 
physiologic Study  of  the  Clam,  262. — Study  of  the  Snail  Shell, 
270. — Systematic  Study  for  Branch  Mollusca,  270.— Systematic 
Study  for  Classes  of  Mollusca,  272. 

Index 273 


PRINCIPLES  OF 

ECONOMIC   ZOOLOGY 


PART   1 


FIELD  AND    LABORATORY    GUIDE 


TO   THE   TEACHER 


The  purpose  of  these  studies  is  not  to  obtain  a  few  facts 
about  the  structure  and  hfe-history  of  animals,  but  to  lead  the 
student  to  discover  the  principles  which  underlie  these  facts 
and  to  bring  him  to  see  that  the  same  fundamental  principles 
apply  to  all  animal  life,  including  man. 

The  teacher  is  entreated  not  to  fail  to  use  the  General 
Studies  as  indicated,  especially  upon  the  forms  from  Arthro- 
poda  up,  and  not  to  be  worried  because  of  the  repetition  of  the 
same  questions  for  different  animals.  Study  to  see  how  these 
questions  may  or  may  not  be  applied,  and  why.  Remember, 
we  are  after  principles.  The  study  of  the  live  animal,  both  in 
the  field  and  laboratory,  will  be  found  to  give  a  new  and  vital 
interest  to  the  subject.  If  you  will  persevere  in  the  use  of 
these  studies  as  they  have  been  planned,  Zoology  will  grow  to 
have  a  fascination  for  you  and  your  students  which  mere  facts, 
however  abundant  and  accurate,  can  never  give. 

It  is  not  expected  that  all  of  these  animals  will  be  studied 
every  year.  Each  teacher  must  determine  the  kind  and 
amount  of  work  he  can  undertake  with  his  classes.  He  must 
find  out  what  he  can  best  use  and  what  he  can  most  easily 
obtain.  One  year  some  material  may  not  be  obtainable,  and 
another  year,  easily  obtainable;  or  lack  of  time  or  oppor- 
tunity may  necessitate  the  omission  of  a  certain  suggested 
study.  However,  these  changes  will  make  the  work  new  each 
year,  and  students  cannot  copy  from  the  note-books  of  the 
previous  year. 

1 


.«i<ar 


TO  THE  STUDENT 

The  study  of  animals  is  a  fascinating  subject,  but,  remember, 
you  must  study  the  animals.  A  machine  is  interesting  to  you 
if  you  can  experiment  with  it,  just  to  see  what  you  can  do  with 
it  or  make  it  do  for  you.  Just  so  with  animals,  you  must 
study  the  animal  "machine,"  living  and  dead,  to  understand 
something  of  what  it  can  do  and  the  why  of  its  existence. 
Everything  about  a  machine  is  there  for  some  purpose.  So 
in  an  animal,  everything  you  see  has  or  has  had  a  use.  You 
may  not  be  able  to  determine  what  it  is,  but  you  can  try  to 
find  out  in  the  same  spirit  you  try  to  find  out  the  use  of  the 
parts  of  a  machine.  In  your  study  of  the  animal  machine 
you  must  use  your  mind  and  some  .tools  to  enable  you  to  find 
out  the  wonderful  make-up  of  it,  for  it  is  far  more  wonderful 
than  any  other  machine  you  ever  worked  with. 

The  dissection  may  not  be  pleasant  to  some  of  you,  but  all 
things  worth  while  cost  something.  Forget  the  odors  and 
''ask  the  animal"  what  you  want  to  know.  Look  and  think 
of  what  you  are  trying  to  find  and  of  its  use  to  the  animal. 
Look  even  further,  for  the  principles  which  underlie  its  struc- 
ture and  use.  Finally,  you  will  see  that  you  have  much  in 
common  with  the  animals  about  you.  You  are  influenced  by 
your  environment  and  heredity  much  as  they  are.  You  will 
see  also  that  you  are  dependent  upon  them  for  many  things 
necessary  to  your  daily  existence  and  comfort.  Get  your  eyes 
open  while  you  are  alive.  See  and  enjoy  the  beautiful,  won- 
derful world  in  which  you  live. 
2 


THE   LABORATORY 

The  equipment  for  good  work  will  depend  very  largely  on 
the  energy,  initiative  ability,  enthusiasm,  and  tact  of  the 
teacher.  A  live  animal,  a  live  pupil,  and  a  live  teacher  would 
constitute  a  live  and  interesting  class  with  no  other  equip- 
ment, while,  without  these,  an  expensive  equipment  will  arouse 
little  or  no  interest.  The  following  equipment  will  be  found 
very  helpful: 

(1)  Magnifying  glasses  of  ten  and  twenty  magnification 
power  are  found  to  be  the  most  satisfactory  for  class  use. 

(2)  Compound  microscopes.  One  for  two  students  gives 
good  results,  but  one  for  each  student  is  the  ideal  plan. 

(3)  Dissecting  instruments.  These  may  be  purchased  for 
$1  per  set  and  kept  in  stock  for  class  use,  or  each  student 
may  use  his  own  set. 

(4)  Tables  with  lockers  in  which  students  may  leave  their 
notes  and  instruments  from  day  to  day  are  essential. 

(5)  Insect  net.     (See  under  Insects,  p.  56.) 

(6)  Cyanid  bottle.     (See  p.  54.) 

(7)  Material:  (a)  Marine  material  may  be  purchased  of 
the  Marine  Biological  Laboratory,  Wood's  Holl,  Massachu- 
setts. 

(b)  Inland  forms  may  be  obtained  from  Alfred  W.  Jones, 
Salina,  Kansas,  or  from  N.  O.  Lawson,  Geneva,  Illinois. 

(c)  Local  material  should  be  collected  by  the  teacher  and 
class  as  field  exercises.  It  may  also  be  purchased  inexpen- 
sively from  small  boys,  who  are  ever  ready  to  earn  a  few  pen- 
nies. 

(d)  Stock  material  may  be  kept  in  from  2  to  5  per  cent, 
formaldehyd  or  formalin. 

Fish,  frogs,  and  such  forms  should  have  a  few  cuts  in  the 
body  to  admit  the  preserving  fluid  to  the  internal  organs. 

Take  1  part,  by  measure,  of  formahn  and  19  parts,  by 
measure,  of  water  for  preserving  insects  for  class  use. 

3 


4:  THE    LABORATORY 

For  temporary  use,  small  vertebrate  forms  may  be  kept 
in  a  strong  solution  of  common  salt.  This  draws  out  the 
blood  and,  if  poured  out  and  renewed  occasionally,  gives  ex- 
cellent satisfaction. 

For  class  use  it  is  an  excellent  plan  to  have  each  student 
keep  his  specimen  in  a  glass  fruit-jar,  labeled  with  his  own 
name. 

Reading  List. — The  teacher  should  make  a  hst  of  avail- 
able books  on  animals  for  the  students'  use.  Give  the  author 
and  page  of  the  book  where  the  desired  information  is  to  be 
found.  This  reading  list  is  very  helpful  for  points  which  are 
hard  to  get  from  the  animal. 

''The  Teaching  of  Biology/'  by  Lloyd  and  Bigelow  (Long- 
mans, Green  and  Co.,  N.  Y.,  SL50),  is  very  helpful  to  the 
teacher.     It  contains  scores  of  references  to  biologic  subjects. 


PLAN   FOR  USING   LABORATORY   STUDIES   OF 
TYPIC   ANIMALS 

The  authors  have  found  by  experience  that  the  following 
order  of  studies  is  a  good  plan  for  each  type: 
Study  of  the  Live  Animal. 

I.  General  Preliminary  Study.  The  student  should  learn 
to  take  such  points  as  he  can  answer  from  the  animal,  omit- 
ting only  such  as  do  not  apply  to  the  animal  under  considera- 
tion.    "Ask  the  animal,  do  not  ask  the  teacher." 

II.  Ecologic  or  Environment  Study.  All  points  which 
apply  to  the  animal  under  consideration,  numbering  your 
answers  accordingly. 

III.  Study  of  Animal  Behavior. 

IV.  Special  Morphophysiologic  Study. 

V.  Systematic  Study  of  the  branch,  class,  and  order  to 
which  the  animal  belongs. 

VL  Final  Study,  which  should  be  preceded  by  the  study  of 
the  descriptive  text. 

These  studies  give  the  student  a  formula  to  follow  in  study- 
ing animals  from  different  viewpoints,  and  fix  the  facts  and 
principles  in  his  mind. 

Each  teacher  w\\\  observe  that  the  Studies  I,  II,  and  III  do 
not  require  dissection,  but  are  intended  to  give  the  student  a 
preliminary  view  of  the  live  animal,  if  possible,  but  in  any 
case,  with  the  animal  before  the  student.  Then  follows  the 
Morphophysiologic  Study,  or  the  dissection,  for  which  a 
separate  study  is  provided  for  each  animal  type. 


LABORATORY   STUDIES  UPON  TYPIC   ANIMALS^ 
I.  GENERAL  PRELIMINARY   STUDY 

1.  General  characteristics  of  this  animal  as  to — 

(1)  Head, 

(2)  Body, 

(3)  Appendages, 

(4)  Mouth, 

(5)  Ears, 

(6)  Eyes,  or  as  many  of  these  as  you  can  identify  and 

describe  briefly. 

2.  Symmetry.     Is    this    animal    asymmetric,  radial,  or    bi- 
lateral? 

3.  Habitat.     Is  this  animal  aerial,   aquatic,   terrestrial,   or 
subterranean? 

4.  Food. 

(1)  Is  this  animal  carnivorous,  herbivorous,  or  omnivorous? 

(2)  How  does  it  obtain  its  food? 

(3)  Is  there  anything  about  the  structure  of  this  animal 

to  suggest  how  it  gets  its  food?     To  suggest  the 
character  of  its  food? 

5.  Locomotion. 

(1)  How  many  appendages  or  limbs  has  this  animal? 

(2)  Is  it  fixed  or  free?     What  effect  does  this  have  upon 

its  development  and  movements? 

(3)  Is  its  locomotion  affected  by  body  movement,  by  limb 

movement,  or  by  l^oth? 

(4)  Upon  what  part  of  the  body,  limb,  or  foot  does  it 

move  from  place  to  place? 

(5)  What  is  its  locomotion  called? 

(6)  Rate  of  locomotion  as  compared  with  that  of  man? 

6.  Self  defense. 

(1)  Name  its  direct  means  of  defense. 

(2)  Name  its  indirect  means. 

1  See  Plan  for  using  these  studies,  p.  5. 
6 


8  LABORATORY    STUDIES    UPON    TYPIC   ANIMALS 

7.  Rivalry. 

(1)  By  battle?     If  so,  how? 

(2)  By  song? 

(3)  By  color  or  by  what  means?     Describe  accurately. 

(4)  Adaptations   for   rivalry.     Spurs,    horns,    quills,   bill, 

fine  feathers,  or  what  means? 

8.  Covering. 

(1)  Consists  of  scales,  fur,  shell,  or  what? 

(2)  Variations  of  the  covering  on  various  parts  of  the  body 

■or  appendages? 

9.  Color. 

(1)  General  color  of  this  animal? 

(2)  Color  of  its  head? 

(3)  Color  of  its  tail? 

(4)  Color  dorsally? 

(5)  Color  ventrally? 

(6)  Color  laterally? 

(7)  Color  of  hmbs  or  appendages? 

(8)  Describe  color  patterns  accurately. 

10.  Resemblances. 

(1)  Any  protective  resemblance?     If  so,  what? 

(2)  Why? 

(3)  Does  the  attitude  of  this  animal  affect  this  resem- 

blance?    If  so,  how? 

11.  Parasites. 

(1)  Is  this  specimen  a  parasite?     If  so,  upon  what? 

(2)  Effect  of  this  parasitism  upon  the  parasite? 

(3)  Effect  upon  the  host? 

(4)  Is   this   animal   a   host   for   a   parasite?     If   so,    for 

what? 

(5)  Effect  upon  the  host? 

12.  Sketch.  Make  a  sketch  of  this  animal  and  name  the 
external  parts.  If  the  animal  is  small,  make  the  sketch  life 
size  or  larger. 

II.  ECOLOGIC  OR  ENVIRONMENT  STUDY 

Environment  is  considered  as  everything  outside  the  animal 
which  may  affect  it. 


10  LABORATOKY    STUDIES    UPON    TYPIC    ANIMALS 

1.  Is  the  environment  of  this  animal — 

(1)  Aquatic, 

(2)  Terrestrial, 

(3)  Subterranean, 

(4)  Arboreal, 

(5)  Aerial,  or 

(6)  Some  combination  of  these? 

2.  Change  its  environment  from to 

How  would  this  change  affect  its — 

(1)  Structure, 

(2)  Food, 

(3)  Enemies, 

(4)  Dispersal, 

(5)  Barriers, 

(6)  Locomotion,  and 

(7)  Covering? 

3.  Organic  Forces  (animals  and  plants). 

(1)  What  influence  upon  this  animal  has  a  scanty  vege- 

tation?    An  abundant  vegetation? 

(2)  What  influences  have  animals  of  the  same  kind?     Of 

different  kinds? 

4.  Aqueous  Forces.  Influence  upon  this  animal  of  rain, 
snow,  sleet,  hail,  or  ice? 

5.  Atmospheric  Forces.  Influences  of  the  direction  and 
velocity  of  winds? 

6.  Igneous  Forces.  Influences  of  the  varying  temperature 
from  day  to  day  and  from  month  to  month?  During  what 
months  is  this  animal  most  active?     Least  active? 

7.  Weather.  Influence  of  such  weather  as  to-day  on  this 
animal? 

8.  Climate.  Influence  of  this  temperate  climate  on  this 
animal? 

9.  Make  a  Hst— 

(1)  Of    all    the    environment    factors    that    favor    this 

animal. 

(2)  Of  those  that  are  unfavorable  to  it. 

10.  State  briefly  your  estimate  of  the  influence  of  environ- 
ment, past  and  present,  on  this  animal. 


12  LABORATORY    STUDIES    UPON    TYPIC    ANIMALS 

ni.  ANIMAL  BEHAVIOR 

Teacher,  designate  such  of  the  following  as  you  wish  to  con- 
sider for  the  animal  you  are  studying.  Student,  do  not  guess 
your  answers.  Find  out  by  observation,  experiment  on  the 
animal,  and  by  reading  in  advanced  zoologies. 

1.  Irritability.     How  shown?     Why  shown?     Use? 

2.  Reflexes. 

(1)  Automatic  actions.     Name  those  of  this  animal?     Why 

automatic? 

(2)  Reflex  actions.     How,  when,  and  why  shown  by  this 

animal?     Are  these  conscious  or  unconscious? 

3.  Sensation. 

(1)  Sense  of  touch. 

(a)  Strong  or  weak?     Why? 

(b)  Relied  upon  for  what  information  by  this  animal? 

(2)  Taste. 

(a)  Evidences  of  this  sense? 

(b)  Well  or  poorly  developed?     Why? 

(c)  Relied  upon  for  what  information? 

(d)  Organs  of  taste?     Their  location? 

(3)  Smell. 

(a)  Is  this  sense  of  smell  well  or  poorly  developed? 
Why? 

(b)  Evidences  of  the  sense  of  smell? 

(c)  Relied  upon  for  what?     Used  at  long  or  close  range? 

(d)  Any  motion  of  the  organs? 

(4)  Sight. 

(a)  Describe  the  organs  of  sight.     Their  location. 

(b)  Relied  upon  for  what? 

(c)  Used  at  long  or  close  range? 

(d)  What  portion  of  a  circle,  of  which  this  animal  is  the 
center,  can  it  see  without  turning  its  head?  With- 
out turning  its  body?     How? 

(5)  Hearing. 

(a)  Location  of  organs? 

(b)  Are  they  well  or  poorly  developed? 

(c)  Consist  of  what? 

(d)  Relied  upon  for  what? 


14  LABORATORY    STUDIES    UPON    TYPIC    ANIMALS 

(e)  Used  at  Ions  or  close  range? 

(f)  Their  motions,  if  any?     Purpose  of  these  motions? 
4.  Instincts. 

(1)  Egoistic  Instincts. 

(a)  Feeding. 

(1)  What  particular  food-securing  instincts  has  this 

animal?     How  shown? 

(2)  Adaptation  for  securing  food? 

(b)  Self-preservation. 

(1)  What  instincts  of  self-preservation  has  this  animal? 

Defense,  concealment,  flight,  feigning  death,  or 
what? 

(2)  What  are  its  adaptations  for  self-preservation? 

(c)  Environment  Instincts. 

(1)  Climatic  instincts.     Name  them. 

(2)  Atmospheric,    those    induced    by    the    weather. 

Name,  if  any. 

(3)  Aquatic.     If  the  animal  lives  in  the  water,  sub- 

stitute number  (3)  for  number  (2),  and  name 
the  instincts  induced  by  the  water  in  which  the 
animal  lives. 

(d)  Instinct  of  sleep. 

(1)  When  shown? 

(2)  Purpose? 

(e)  Play.     Has  this  animal  any  instinct  of  play?    If  so, 

what? 

(1)  Is  it  social  or  solitary? 

(2)  Purpose  of  play  to  this  animal? 

(f)  Strife. 

(1)  When  shown? 

(2)  Why  shown? 

(g)  Hunting. 

(1)  Adaptations  for? 

(2)  Purpose? 

(2)  Altruistic  Instincts. 

(a)  Courtship.     By  male  or  female? 

(b)  Reproduction.     Sexual,  asexual,  or  both? 

(c)  Home  making.     By  male  or  female? 

(d)  Care  of  young.     How? 


16  LABORATORY    STUDIES    UPON    TYPIC    ANIMALS 

5.  Emotions. 

(1)  Which  of  the  following  emotions  have  you  seen  this 

animal  show?  Surprise,  fear,  parental  affection, 
pugnacity,  industry,  curiosity,  jealousy,  anger, 
emulation,  pride,  love  of  ornament,  grief,  hate, 
cruelty,  revenge,  shame,  deceit. 

(2)  Which  of  the  above-named  emotions   do   you  infer 

that  it  has?     Why? 

6.  Voice  or  Sound  (if  any). 

(1)  How,  when,  where,  and  why  made? 

(2)  Called  what? 

(3)  Made  by  the  male,  the  female,  or  both? 

(4)  Organ,  or  organs  of  voice? 

(5)  Location  of  sound-making  apparatus? 

(6)  Range  of  voice  or  sound? 

(7)  Make  a  list  of  the  sounds  made  by  this  animal. 

(8)  Significance  of  each  sound  made? 

(9)  Can  this  animal  communicate  with  its  own  kind?     If 

so,  how? 

7.  Memory. 

(1)  State  your  proof  for  or  against  this  animal's  having 

memory. 

(2)  Of  its  own  young?     Instances. 

(3)  Of  its  own  species?     Instances. 

(4)  Of  different  species?     Instances. 

(5)  Of  direction?     Instances,  if  any. 

(6)  Of  place?     Instances. 

(7)  Of  past  experiences?     Instances. 

(8)  Of  man?     Instances,  if  any. 

8.  Reason. 

(1)  Does  this  animal  learn  from  past  experiences?     Prove 

your  position  on  this  point. 

(2)  Does  it  have  the  power  of  adaptive  choice?     Prove 

statement  by  examples  observed. 

(3)  Does  it  have  the  power  of  abstract  thought? 

9.  Intelligence.  Is  this  animal  high,  medium,  or  low  in 
the  scale  of  intelligence?  Upon  what  do  you  base  this 
statement? 


18  LABORATORY    STUDIES    UPON    TYPIC    ANIMALS 

IV.    MORPHOPHYSIOLOGIC   STUDY  OF  THIS  ANIMAL 
V.  CLASSIFICATION   OR   SYSTEMATIC   STUDY  ^ 

1.  This  animal  belongs  to  Branch because  it  has 

these  branch  characteristics: (Student  name  them.) 

2.  To  Class It  has  these  class  characteristics : 

3.  To  Order It  has  these  ordinal  characteristics : .  . . 

Advanced  Study — 

4.  To  Family It  has  these  family  characteristics: .  .  . . 

5.  To  Genus .  .It  has  these  generic  characteristics:.  .  . 

6.  To  Species It  has  these  specific  characteristics:.  . . 

7.  Scientific  Name: 

8.  Common  Name : 

Remark. — The  student  will  discover  these  characteristics 
from  the  animal  and  from  consulting  advanced  works  on 
zoology.  Endeavor  to  get  a  correct  idea  of  what  scientists 
mean  by  branch,  class,  or  ordinal  characteristics.  Get  the 
Principles  of  Classification. 

VI.  FINAL  ORAL  OR  WRITTEN   STUDY 

Note. — This  study  is  intended  to  be  taken  after  the  ex- 
amination and  the  dissection  of  the  animal  has  been  completed, 
and  the  test  has  been  carefully  studied  upon  the  type  consid- 
ered. The  answers,  then,  may  be  based  upon  the  student's 
own  observations  or  upon  his  study  of  the  text  and  reference 
books.  Some  of  the  general  headings  have  been  repeated  here, 
but  nearly  all  of  the  questions  under  them  are  new,  and  such 
as  were  purposely  omitted  from  the  other  studies  in  order  that 
the  animal  might  be  gotten  through  with  as  quickly  as  possible, 
and  thus  all  unpleasant  odors  avoided. 

1.  Skeleton. 

(1)  Use  of  this  skeleton  to  the  animal? 

(2)  Use  of  this  skeleton  to  man? 

2.  Size.  Do  male  and  female  differ  in  size?  If  so,  how? 
Why? 

^This  study  should  be  taken  after  the  Morphophysiologic  Study  of  This 
Animal. 


20  LABORATORY    STUDIES    UPON    TYPIC    ANIMALS 

3.  Struggle  for  existence.  Give  reasons  for  the  threefold 
struggle  for  existence  among  animals. 

4.  Digestion.  What  advancement  or  degeneration  is  there 
in  the  organs  of  digestion  of  this  animal  compared  with  those 
of  the  last  animal  studied? 

5.  Circulation.  What  advancement  or  degeneration  in  the 
circulatory  organs  as  compared  with  those  of  the  last  animal 
studied? 

6.  Respiration.  W^hat  advancement  or  degeneration,  if 
any,  in  the  organs  of  respiration  of  this  animal  as  compared 
with  those  of  the  last  animal  studied? 

Any  difference  in  the  respiratory  organs  of  the  young  from 
those  of  the  adult  animal? 

7.  Nervous  System.  What  advancement  or  degeneration 
in  the  nervous  system  of  this  animal,  as  compared  with  that 
of  the  last  animal  studied? 

8.  What  organ,  if  any,  appears  here  for  the  first  time  in  the 
animal  kingdom? 

9.  Any  metamorphosis?  If  so,  name  the  animal  in  each 
stage  of  its  development. 

10.  Home. 

(1)  Its  home  is  called  nest,  den,  or  what? 

(2)  Location  of  home? 

(3)  Materials  used? 

(4)  Tools  used  in  making  the  home?     How  is  the  home 

made? 

(5)  Purpose  of  the  home? 

11.  Food. 

(1)  Food  of  the  young? 

(2)  Food  of  the  adult? 

(3)  Food  in  summer?     Does  it  vary  from  that  of  winter? 

How? 

(4)  How  does  this  animal  obtain  its  food? 

(5)  Where  does  it  obtain  it? 

(6)  When  does  it  obtain  it? 

(7)  Does  this  animal  injure  man's  crops?     If  so,  how? 

Remedy? 

(8)  Is  it  in  any  way  beneficial  to  man's  crops?     How? 


22  LABORATORY    STUDIES    UPON    TYPIC    ANIMALS 

12.  Enemies. 

(1)  What   is   this   animal's   particular   mode   of   defense 

against  them? 

(2)  Does  it  have  any  peculiar  mode  of  attacking  them? 

If  so,  what? 

(3)  Name  its  means  of  defense. 

(4)  What  are  the  enemies  of  the  young? 

(5)  Does  the  male  or  the  female  defend  the  young? 

(6)  Is  the  young  able  to  defend  itself?     If  so,  how? 

13.  Covering. 

(1)  Does  the  covering  of  the  young  differ  from  that  of  the 

adult?     If  so,  how?     Does  it  ever  change  in  thick- 
ness from  environment  causes? 

(2)  Uses  of  this  covering  to  the  animal? 

(3)  Use  to  man? 

(4)  What  inferences  as  to  the  habits  and  habitat  of  this 

animal  do  you  draw  from  its  covering? 

(5)  Does  this  animal  have  an  ecdysis?     Describe. 

14.  Color. 

(1)  What  gives  this  animal  its  color? 

(2)  Significance  of  its  color  and  color  patterns? 

(3)  Does  the  color  of  the  young  differ  from  that  of  the 

adult?     If  so,  how?     Why? 

(4)  Does  the  color  of  the  male  differ  from  that  of  the 

female?     If  so,  how?     Why?    When? 

(5)  Does  the  color  of  different  individuals  of  the  same  sex 

vary?     If  so,  how?     Why? 

(6)  Does  the  color  of  the  same  individual  vary  at  different 

seasons  or  under  different  environment  conditions? 
If  so,  how?     Why? 

15.  Resemblances. 

(1)  Any  special  protective  resemblance?     (S.  P.  R.) 

(a)  If  so,  what  does  it  resemble? 

(b)  How? 

(c)  Why? 

(2)  Any   variable   protective   resemblance?     (V.    P.    R.) 

Describe.     Cause? 

(3)  Any  aggressive  resemblance?     (A.   R.)     If  so,  what 

does  it  resemble? 


24  LABORATORY    STUDIES    UPON    TYPIC    ANIMALS 

(a)  How? 

(b)  Why? 
(4)  Mimicry. 

(a)  What  does  it  mimic? 

(b)  Just  how  does  it  resemble  the  mimicked  species  and 
A^,     ^  how  does  it  differ  from  it? 

&^^     (c)  What  advantage  does  it  gain  by  this  mimicry? 
Sf  ^        (d)  Is  this  animal  conscious  of  its  mimicry?     Is  the 


# 


«■ 


\J  mimicry  voluntary 


^   hJ*        (5)  Attitude.     Does  this  animal  assume  any  particular 
'^jg  attitude  for  protection?     If  so,  how  does  this  atti- 

^  tude  affect  its  protective  resemblance? 

^         16.  Warning  Colors.     If  any,  describe  accurately  the  color 
^       and  color  patterns. 
'  (1)  Of  what  use  are  these  colors  to  the  animal? 

(2)  Of  what  do  they  warn  the  enemy? 

(3)  How  do  the  habits  of  animals  having  warning  colors 

differ  from  those  of  animals  having  protective  re- 
semblance? 

17.  Alluring  Colors. 

(1)  If  any,  describe  them  minutely,  and  tell  how  they  are 

used  to  allure,  and  why? 

(2)  What  difference,  if  any,  between  the  alluring  colors 

of  the  male  and  those  of  the  female? 

18.  Recognition  of  its  Own  or  Different  Species. 

(1)  By  color.     If  the  recognition  is  by  color,  state  color, 

and  accurately  describe  color  patterns. 

(2)  By  sound.     If  by  sound,  what  is  the  sound  called? 

(3)  By  odor.     If  so,  how  and  when  is  it  used?     Upon 

what  part  of  the  body  is  the  odor  secreted? 

(4)  By  shape,  by  contact,  or  by  what  means? 

(5)  When,  how,  and  why  does  this  animal  make  use  of  its 

means  of  recognition? 

19.  Terrifying  Appearance  or  Attitude.     If  any,  how,  when, 
and  why  shown? 

20.  Relations  with  Other  Animals. 

(1)  Is  this  animal  solitary,  social,  or  gregarious?     Why? 

(2)  What  is  a  number  of  these  animals  together  called — 

a  herd,  a  swarm,  or  what? 


26  LABORATORY    STUDIES    UPON    TYPIC    ANIMALS 

(3)  Anj^  commensalism  or  symbiosis? 

(a)  With  what  animal? 

(b)  Effect  upon  each? 

(4)  Is  this  animal  diurnal,  crepuscular,  or  nocturnal  in 

its  activities?     Why? 

21.  MultipHcation. 

(1)  Is  this  animal  hermaphroditic? 

(2)  Is  it  dimorphic,  trimorphic,  or  polymorphic? 

(3)  Does  it  have  alternation  of  generations? 

(4)  Is  its  multiplication  sexual,  asexual,  or  both? 

22.  The  Young. 

(1)  Number  in  a  brood? 

(2)  Number  of  broods  in  a  year? 

(3)  Are  the  young  precocial  or  altricial? 

(4)  Time  required  to  reach  growth  or  maturity? 

(5)  Average  length  of  life  of  this  species?     What  relation 

between  the  growing  period  and  the  length  of  life? 

23.  Activities  Due  to  Environment. 

(1)  Does  this  animal  migrate,  hibernate,  or  remain  active 

in  winter? 

(2)  If  it  hibernates,  how  or  in  what  does  it  hibernate? 

(3)  If  it  migrates,  to  what  place  or  conditions  does  it  go? 

(4)  Does  it  go  singly,  or  with  others  of  its  kind? 

(5)  Does  it  migrate,  estivate,  or  remain  active  in  summer? 

If  it  migrates,  to  what  place  does  it  go?     Why? 
When  does  it  go?     When  return? 

24.  Geographic  Distribution.  1    State  as  accurately  as  possible 
the  geographic  distribution  of  this  family  or  species  of  animals. 

(1)  Do  any  of  its  habits  or  features  of  structure  vary  in 

different  localities?     How?     Why?     Examples. 

(2)  Name  some  of  the  means  of  dispersal  of  this  animal. 

(3)  Name  the  barriers  to  dispersal.     Why  are  these  con- 

ditions barriers  to  the  dispersal  of  this  particular 
animal? 

25.  Geologic  Distribution.^ 

(1)  In  what  era  did  its  Branch  and  Class  appear? 

(2)  Are  the  individuals  of  this  class  more  numerous  than  in 

former  geologic  eras? 

(3)  Are  they  more  or  less  highly  developed? 

^See  Daugherty's  "Economic  Zoology."         ^See  a  good  geology. 


CRUSTACEA^ 
STUDY   OF   LIVE   CRAYFISH 

1.  Collecting. 

(1)  Day  Field  Trip. 

(a)  Look  along  the  edges  of  shallow  ponds  and  streams. 

(b)  Look  under  stones  in  the  shallow  rapids  of  small 

streams. 

(c)  What  means  have  the  crayfish  of  evading  or  escap- 

ing you? 

(d)  Where  do  you  find  the  crayfish  holes  most  numerous? 

(1)  Note  their  depth. 

(2)  Do  the  holes  all  have  chimneys? 

(3)  Did  you  ever  find  the  chimney  stopped  up  with 

mud?     What  kind  of  weather  was  it? 

(4)  Do  the  crayfish  live  singly  or  in  pairs? 

(2)  Evening  Field  Trip.     Try  agpn  at  night,  by  placing 

a  bright  light  where  it  will  shine  down  into  the 
water.  Crayfish  will  be  attracted  by  the  light  and 
may  be  captured  with  the  net,^  which,  for  use  in  the 
water,  should  be  of  strong,  open-meshed  goods  like 
seine  cloth. 

(a)  Do  you  find  crayfish  active  in  the  daytime  or  at 
night? 

(b)  Are  they  solitary  or  gregarious? 

2.  Aquarium. 

The  habits  and  activities  of  crayfish  may  be  advantageously 
studied  in  a  tank  or  any  sort  of  an  aquarium  where  the  water 
may  be  changed  occasionally. 

(1)  Do  they  seek  the  light  or  the  sheltered  places? 

(2)  Find  out,  by  trying  various  kinds  of  food,  whether  they 

are  herbivorous,  carnivorous,  or  omnivorous. 

(3)  Watch  them  feed  and  describe  their  feeding  habits. 

(4)  Find  out  all  their  kinds  of  locomotion. 

(5)  What  means  of  concealment  have  they? 

1  The  study  of  Insecta  may  precede  that  of  Crustacea  in  order  to  obtain 
live  insects. 

2  See  "  Insect  net." 

28 


30  CRUSTACEA 

(6)  Means  of  defense — which  do  thej^  do  first,   flee  or 

fight? 

(7)  In  flight,  what  kind  of  locomotion  do  they  use?     Just 

how  is  it  performed? 

(a)  Give  two  reasons  why  they  go  backward. 

(b)  Molest  one  from  behind.     What  does  it  do?     Wh}^? 

(8)  Try  experiments  to  discover  their  range  of  sight. 

(a)  What  part  of  a  circle  can  a  crayfish  see,  since  it  can- 

not turn  its  head?     How? 

(b)  Can  it  see  if  there  are  any  obstacles  in  its  way  when 

it  darts  backward? 

(9)  Find  out  if  the  surface  of  the  body  is  sensitive  to  the 

touch. 

(10)  See  if  you  can  find  any  reason  for  two  pairs  of  antennae. 

(11)  Find  out  if  the  crayfish  can  hear,  smell,  or  taste. 

(12)  Determine  the  direction  of  the  gill-currents  by  placing 

a  drop  of  ink  near  the  anterior  edge  and  one  at  the 

posterior  edge  of  the  carapace. 
3.  Development. 

In  early  spring  females  with  large,  berry-like  clusters  of  eggs, 
under  the  abdomen,  will  be  found. 

(1)  To  what  are  the  eggs  fastened?     How? 

(2)  Take  these  female  specimens  to  your  aquarium  and 

watch  the  eggs  till  they  are  hatched. 

(3)  The  young. 

(a)  Do  they  differ  from  the  adults?     If  so,  how? 

(b)  Are  they  freed  or  attached  to  the  mother?     If  at- 

tached, how? 

(c)  Do  they  feed  themselves,  or  are   they  fed  by  the 

mother  at  first? 

(d)  What  is  their  food? 

(4)  Molting. 

(a)  Watch  carefully  for  the  process  of  molting. 

(b)  How  does  the  crayfish  get  out  of  its  shell? 

(c)  Did  any  accident  happen  to  it  while  it  w^as  getting 

out?     If  so,  what? 

(d)  In  what  condition  is  the  body  when  the  shell  is  first 
removed? 

(e)  W^here  does  the  newly  molted  crayfish  stay? 


32  CRUSTACEA 

I    Take  Preliminary  Study. 
II.  Take  Environment  Study. 

III,  Take  Animal  Behavior. 

IV.  Take  Morphophysiologic  Study. 

V.  Take  Systematic  Studies  for  Branch  and  Class. 
VI.  Mount  a  crayfish. 

MORPHOPHYSIOLOGIC   STUDY   OF  THE   CRAYFISH 
A.  External  Morphology 

I.   General  Observations. 

1.  Number  of  Segments.  Zoologists  claim  that  the  crayfish 
is  composed  of  twenty  segments.  Begin  with  the  last  seg- 
ment of  the  abdomen  and  see  how  many  segments  you  can  find. 
Each  pair  of  appendages  is  attached  to  a  different  segment. 

2.  Length — from  tip  of  rostrum  (between  the  eyes)  to  the 
end  of  last  segment. 

3.  Covering — the  carapace.     Its  composition? 

4.  Cervical  Groove — which  shows  where  the  head  and 
thorax  unite  in  the  cephalothorax. 


II.  Body  Divisions. 

1.  The  Cephalothorax  (head  and  thorax  united). 

(1)  Shape? 

(2)  Length  to  abdomen? 

(3)  Color? 

(4)  The  Eyes. 

(a)  Number? 

(b)  Kind  (simple  or  compound)? 

(c)  Sessile  or  stalked? 

(d)  Location? 

(e)  Motion? 

(f)    Protection? 

(g)  Color? 

(h)  Use? 

(i)    Sketch,  much  enlarged. 

(5)  The  Antennae. 

(a)  Number? 

(b)  Shape? 

34  CRUSTACEA 

(c)  Location? 

(d)  Number  of  segments? 

(e)  Covering? 

(f)  Parts.     (Take  out  one,  sketch  it,  see  Huxley  or  other 

large  zoology,  and  name  all  the  parts  present.) 

(g)  Use? 

(6)  The  Antennules.     (a)-(g)  as  for  antennse. 

(7)  The  Mandibles,  or  Jaws.     A  pair  of  hard  toothed  ap- 

pendages. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Location? 

(c)  Motion?     Horizontal  or  vertical? 

(d)  Use? 

(e)  Mandibular  palpi.     Number  to  each  mandible? 

(f)  Metastoma,  a  leaf-like  structure  posterior  to  each 

mandible. 

(8)  The  MaxillaB — two  pairs  of  thin  appendages  just  poste- 

rior to  the  m.andibles.  With  your  forceps  carefully 
remove  them  from  one  side.  Be  careful  not  to  in- 
jure them. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Use? 

(c)  Sketch  each,  much  enlarged. 

(9)  The  Maxillipeds — three  pairs  of  similar  appendages  be- 

tween the  maxillae  and  the  large  legs. 

(a)  With  forceps  carefullj^  remove  the  maxillipeds  from 

one  side.     Sketch  each  one,  much  enlarged. 

(b)  Use? 

(10)  The  Legs.     Five  pairs. 

(a)  Remove  the  large  leg  on  the  right  side  and  sketch  it. 

(b)  How  many  segments  has  it? 

(c)  Sketch   shapes   into   which   you   can   arrange   this 

''toggle-jointed"  appendage. 

(d)  Use? 

(e)  Compare  it  with  the  second  pair  of  legs,  noting 

points  of  similarity  and  difference. 

(f)  Compare  with  the  third  pair. 

(g)  Compare  with  the  fourth  pair, 
(h)  Compare  with  the  fifth  pair. 


36  CRUSTACEA 

2.  The  Abdomen. 

(1)  Shape? 

(2)  Number  of  segments? 

(3)  Number  of  appendages  (swimmerets)  ? 

(4)  The  telson,  last  segment,  has  no  appendages. 

(5)  The  Swimmerets. 

(a)  Remxove  and  sketch  the  pair  from  the  third  abdom- 

inal segment.     Note  that  it  has  a  main  stalk  and 
two  branches. 

(b)  Compare  it  with  the  first  pair,  noting  similarities 

and  differences,  or  sketch  both  to  show  comparison. 

(c)  Compare  with  second  pair. 

(d)  Compare  with  fourth  pair. 

(e)  Compare  with  fifth  pair. 

(f)  Compare  with  sixth  pair. 

(g)  Use  of  the  swimmerets? 

(h)  Compare  with  thoracic  legs, 
(i)    Compare  with  maxillipeds. 
(i)  Compare  with  maxillse. 
(k)  Compare  with  mandibles. 
(1)    Compare  with  antennae . 
(m)  Compare  with  antennules. 
(n)  Compare  with  eyes. 

(o)  Conclusion. — Appendages  of  the  same  essential  plan 
or  not? 

B.  Internal  Morphology 

Follow  the  same  plan  for  dissection  as  in  insect  studies. 
Chloroform  a  fresh  specimen  or  kill  it  by  warm  water,  as  directed 
for  the  clam. 

1.  The  Circulatory  System.  Carefully  remove,  wdth  scissors 
and  forceps,  the  dorsal  portion  of  the  abdomen  and  about  one- 
half  inch  of  the  carapace,  and  expose  the  heart,  which  is  a  whit- 
ish, oblong  organ. 

(1)  Pericardial  cavity  in  which  the  heart  is  located.     Use? 

(2)  The  heart. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Size? 


38 


CRUSTACEA 


Xt'-J 


Fig.  1. — Astacus  fluviatilis.  A  male  specimen,  with  the  roof  of  the  cara- 
pace and  the  terga  of  the  abdominal  somites  removed  to  show  the  viscera 
(natural  size) :  aa,  Antennary  artery ;  ag,  anterior  gastric  muscles ;  amm, 
adductor  muscles  of  the  mandibles ;  cs,  cardiac  portion  of  the  stomach ; 
gg,  green  glands;  h,  heart;  hg,  hind  gut,  or  large  intestine ;  Lr,  liver ;_oa, 
ophthalmic  artery;  pg,  posterior  gastric  muscles;  saa,  superior  abdominal 
artery;  t,  testis;  vd,  vas  deferens.     (Huxley.) 


(c)  Openings — how  many?     Use? 

(d)  Trace  small  white  tubes,  arteries,  to  different  parts 

of  the  body. 


40  CRUSTACEA 

(3)  Plan  of  circulation  of  blood  of  the  era}  fish.    From  heart 

to From to From 

to  the  heart. 

(a)  Any  veins?     Any  capillaries?^ 

(b)  How  is  the  circulation  kept  up? 

(c)  Why  is  the  circulation  kept  up? 

2.  The  Respiratory  System. 

(1)  The  Gills.      With  sharp  scissors  cut  away  the  cara- 

pace from  one  side  of  the  cephalothorax,  exposing 
the  white,  feathery  gills.     Dissect  under  water. 

(a)  Number  of  gills  attached  to  the  base  of  each  leg? 

Remove  each  leg  with  your  forceps  and  see. 

(b)  Number  attached  to  body  wall? 

(c)  Total  number  on  one  side? 

(d)  Total  number  on  both  sides? 

(e)  What  does  Huxley's  ''Crayfish"  say  as  to  the  number 

of  gills  in  the  Enghsh  crayfish  (genus  Astacus)? 

(f)  Does  our  crayfish  (Cambarus)  have  the  same  number 

of  gills  as  the  Enghsh  crayfish? 

(g)  Use  of  the  gills? 

(h)  Do  you  see  that  they  are  really  on  the  outside  of  the 
body  wall,  i.  e.,  are  external  organs? 

(2)  Plan  of  the  respiratory  system. 

(a)  How  connected  with  the  circulatory  system? 

(b)  Why  connected  with  the  circulatory  system? 

3.  The  Digestive  System. 

(1)  Mouth-parts.     (Mandibles,  etc.) 

(a)  Name  parts  concerned  in  prehension. 

(2)  The  Mouth.     Find  it  with  your  probe. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Size? 

(c)  Location? 

(3)  The  Gullet.     Find  this  short  tube  leading  into  the 

wide  stomach.     Use? 

(4)  The  Stomach.      With  scalpel  very  carefully  cut  away 

the  top  of  the  head  and  expose  the  large,  thin-walled 
stomach. 
(a)  Color? 

iSee  Huxley's  "Crayfish,"  pp.  69-74. 


42  CRUSTACEA 

(b)  Size? 

(c)  Contents?     Open  it  and  see. 

(d)  Use  of  the  stomach? 

(5)  The  Liver — large  masses  of  reddish  or  brownish  mate- 

rial posterior  to  the  stomach. 

(a)  Number  of  lobes? 

(b)  Use? 

(6)  The   Intestines.     Trace  them  from  the  stomach   to 

the  vent,  in  the  last  segment  of  the  abdomen. 

(a)  Straight  or  coiled? 

(b)  Use? 

(7)  Diagram  or  sketch  the  digestive  organs  and  name  them. 

4.  The  Muscular  System.     (The  Muscles.) 

(1)  The  white  meat.     Where  do  you  find  it? 

(2)  Use  to  the  crayfish? 

(3)  Use  to  man? 

5.  The  Nervous  System.     Look  for  a  white  cord  along  the 
floor  of  the  abdomen. 

(1)  Is  the  cord  single  or  double? 

(2)  How  many  ganglia  to  a  segment? 

(3)  How  many  ganglia  in  the  abdomen? 

(4)  How  many  ganglia  in  the  thorax? 

(5)  How  many  ganglia  in  all? 

(6)  Esophageal  ganglia.      Trace  the  nerve  cord  forward 

until  it  ends  in  a  larger  ganglion  about  the  gullet. 
To  what  organs  can  you  trace  nerves? 

(7)  Sketch  plan  of  nervous  sj^stem. 

6.  The  Special  Senses. 

(1)  The  Eyes.     How  protected? 

(2)  The  Ears. 

(a)  Ear-sacs.     Look  for  them  at  the  base  of  the  anten- 

nules. 

(b)  Size? 

(c)  Contents? 
•  (d)  Use? 

(3)  The  Tongue. 

(a)  Any  present  in  the  mouth? 

(b)  Has  the  crayfish  taste?^ 

1  Huxley,  p.  115. 


44  CRUSTACEA 

(4)  Organs  of  Sensation  (Feeling). 

(a)  Location? 

(b)  Consist  of  what? 

(c)  Use? 

(5)  Upon  what  sense  does  the  crayfish  most  rely?     Why? 
For  comparison,   make  a  study  of  any  other  crustaceans 

available,  using  the  General  Studies  and  the  Morphophysio- 
logic  Study  for  the  crayfish,  making  any  necessary  changes  or 
omissions. 

MOUNTING  A  CRAYFISH 

Take  a  smooth  pine  board  about  6x8  inches  or  larger,  as 
the  size  of  specimen  requires.  (Heavy  cardboard,  as  suggested 
by  Colton,  will  answer  if  boards  are  not  available.)  Bore  a 
small  hole  in  the  center  of  one  end  of  the  board  if  you  wish  to 
hang  up  your  specimen  when  mounted. 

1.  Draw  a  line  the  length  of  your  crayfish  down  the  center 
of  the  board. 

2.  Take  a  moist  (not  wet)  crayfish,  and  very  carefully 
remove  and  arrange  in  their  natural  order  the  following  ap- 
pendages from  one  side  of  the  crayfish:  One  antennule,  one 
antenna,  one  mandible,  one  metastoma,  two  maxillse,  three 
maxillipeds,  five  legs,  and  six  swimmerets. 

3.  Temporarily  pin  your  specimen  so  that  the  center  of  it 
from  beak  to  telson  will  be  over  the  line  drawn  in  the  center  of 
the  board,  and  so  that  the  appendages  not  yet  removed  will  lie 
in  their  natural  position. 

Now  take  the  appendages  you  have  removed,  one  at  a  time, 
beginning  anteriorly,  and  with  a  small  amount  of  Major's 
white  cement  stick  each  one  to  the  board  so  that  it  lies  as 
nearly  as  possible  in  the  same  position  as  the  one  not  yet 
removed,  except  that  instead  of  overlapping,  the  mouth-parts 
should  lie  one  in  front  of  another  so  as  to  show  all  the  parts, 
and  the  legs  and  swimmerets  should  have  their  bases  along  the 
sides  of  the  body  and  not  under  it. 

When  these  are  securely  fastened  down  to  the  board,  unpin 
the  crayfish  and  remove  the  appendages  from  the  other  side, 
arranging  them  similarly  on  the  other  side  of  the  central  line 
and  at  the  same  distance  from  it. 


46  CRUSTACEA 

4.  Now  disjoint  the  abdomen  from  the  cephalothorax  and 
with  a  scalpel  clean  out  the  soft  parts  from  the  interior  of  both. 
Put  them  together  again  with  the  median  line  above  the  line 
drawn  in  the  center  of  the  board,  placing  a  bridge  of  cork  or 
paper  under  the  junction  of  the  cephalothorax  and  the  abdo- 
men, to  raise  the  crayfish  to  its  natural  curvature,  and  glue 
them  in  place. 


ARACHNIDA   (The  Spicier) 

Take  Morphophysiologic  Study  of  the  spider. 
Take  Systematic  Study  for  Branch  Arthropoda. 

MORPHOPHYSIOLOGIC   STUDY   OF  THE   SPIDER. 
A.  External   Morphology 

1.  The  Cephalothorax  (head  and  thorax  united). 

(1)  Segmented  or  unsegmented? 

(2)  Shape? 

(3)  Color? 

(4)  Attachment  to  thorax? 

(5)  Its  one  marked  pecuharity? 

(6)  Appendages. 

(a)  Antennae  present  or  absent? 

(b)  Compound  eyes  present  or  absent? 

(c)  Simple  eyes  present  or  absent? 

(1)  Number? 

(2)  Location?     Show  by  sketch. 

(3)  Color? 

(4)  Shape? 

(5)  Use? 

(d)  Mandibles  or  jaws  (chelicerae). 

(1)  Shape? 

(2)  Number  of  segments? 

(3)  Number  of  fangs? 

(4)  Use? 

(e)  Pedipalpi,  palpi,  maxillae,  or    second  pair  of  jaws 

present? 

(f)  Mouth-parts  for  biting  or  sucking? 

(g)  The  legs. 

(1)  Number  of  pairs? 

(2)  Of  same  size,  or  do  they  vary? 

48 


50  ARACHNIDA    (tHE    SPIDER) 

(3)  Number  of  segments  to  each  leg? 

(4)  Number  of  clawed  legs? 

(5)  Sketch  a  leg  and  name  parts  present. 

(6)  In  what  order  do  the  legs  move  in  locomotion? 

Watch  a  live  spider  and  see. 

(7)  Covering  of  the  legs? 
(7)  The  Special  Senses. 

(a)  Sight.     Organs  of? 

(b)  Touch.     Organs  of? 

(c)  Smell.     Organs  of? 

(d)  Hearing.     Organs  of? 

(e)  Taste.     Organs  of? 

(f)  Name  any  other  senses  present.     Organs  of? 
2.  The  Abdomen. 

(1)  Segmented  or  unsegmented? 

(2)  Covering? 

(3)  Color  above? 

(4)  Color  below? 

(5)  The  Spinnerets.     (Use  magnifying  glass.) 

(a)  Number? 

(b)  Location? 

(c)  Use? 

(6)  The  Lung  Sacs.     (Use  magnifying  glass.) 

(a)  Number? 

(b)  Location? 

(c)  Use? 

(7)  Trache2e.      (Use    magnifying    glass.)     Look    just    in 

front  of  the  spinnerets. 

(a)  Number? 

(b)  Location? 

(c)  Use? 


INSECTA 
COLLECTION    OF  INSECTS  REQUIRED   OF  EACH  STUDENT 

Arrange  your  collection  in  groups  to  represent  the  follow- 
ing characteristics: 

1.  As  to  Mouth-parts. 

(1)  Five  insects  having  biting  mouth-parts. 

(2)  Five  insects  having  sucking  mouth-parts. 

(3)  Three  insects  having  mouth-parts  adapted  for  both 

biting  and  sucking. 

(4)  At  least  one  insect  having  mouth-parts  for  lapping. 

2.  As  to  Protective  Resemblance. 

(1)  Five  insects  having  general  protective  resemblance. 

(2)  Six  insects  having  special  protective  resemblance — 

by  color,  by  shape,  by  attitude,  or  by  any  or  all  of 
these  combined. 

3.  Mimicry.  Two  genuine  cases  of  mimicry,  presenting 
in  each  case  both  the  mimic  and  the  mimicked. 

4.  As  to  Activities. 

(1)  Five  crepuscular  or  nocturnal  insects. 

(2)  Five  diurnal  insects. 

5.  As  to  Economic  Value. 

(1)  Five  insects  which  are  useful  to  man. 

(2)  Five  insects  which  are  harmful  to  man. 

(3)  At  least  three  specimens  of  insects'  architecture  or 

industry. 

Temporary  Insect  Case. — A  cigar-box  with  a  sheet  of  cork 
or  a  couple  of  layers  of  coarse  white  blotting-paper  in  the  bot- 
tom will  serve  very  well  for  a  temporary  insect  case  for  each 
student. 

Put  a  few  drops  of  turpentine  or  formaldehyd  in  one  corner 
to  keep  out  hve  insect  pests.  Use  regular  insect  pins.  Klaeger's 
Nos.  3  and  4  are  perhaps  the  most  useful  sizes.  They  may  be 
obtained  from  dealers  in  naturalists'  supplies. 

52 


54  INSECTA 

The  pin,  except  in  the  case  of  beetles,  should  be  passed 
through  the  thorax  of  the  insect,  one-third  of  ttie  pin  extending 
above  the  body.  On  the  pin,  about  half-waj^  between  the  in- 
sect and  the  cork,  place  a  paper  label  giving  date  and  locality 
of  capture,  and  the  name  of  the  insect  or  the  principle  which  it 
illustrates.  Beetles  should  have  the  pin  thrust  through  the 
right  wing  cover  near  the  middle  of  the  body. 

Make  out  a  ''box-scheme"  showing  what  each  of  your  insects 
represents,  remembering  that  the  same  specimen  may  belong  to 
several  of  the  above-mentioned  groups.  Write  this  scheme 
in  ink  on  white  paper  and  paste  it  on  the  inside  of  the  lid  before 
handing  in  your  collection. 

Collecting. 

1.  Equipment. 
(1)  Killing  Bottle  or  Cyanid  Jar. 

(a)  Preparation.     Put  about  a  teaspoonful  of  potassium 

cyanid,  broken  into  bits,  into  a  wide-mouthed 
bottle  or  a  pint  fruit-jar.  Do  not  handle  the 
cyanid  with  the  fingers,  nor  breathe  its  fumes,  as  it 
is  extremely  poisonous.  Pour  in  just  enough 
water  to  cover  the  cyanid,  then  carefully  pour 
in  enough  plaster-of-Paris  to  take  up  the  water. 
Set  the  bottle,  uncorked,  on  the  outside  window 
ledge  over  night.  Carefully  drain  off  any  surplus 
water,  leave  it  exposed  to  the  air  for  a  short  time, 
and  cover  the  plaster-of-Paris  with  a  piece  of 
cotton  batting  or  a  disk  of  paper  cut  to  fit  the 
jar.  Cover  and  keep  tightly  closed  when  not  in 
use.     Label  the  jar  'Toison." 

(b)  Use.     When  an  insect  is  caught  in  the  net,  uncover 

the  cyanid  jar  and  with  one  hand  carefully  slip 
it  into  the  net  and  place  the  mouth  of  the  jar 
over  the  insect,  then,  with  the  other  hand,  place 
the  lid  of  the  jar  on  the  outside  of  the  net  directly 
under  the  mouth  of  the  jar  and  quickly  turn  the 
jar  right  side  up,  keeping  the  Ud  over  the  mouth 
until  the  insect  is  slightly  stupified,  then  slip  the 
lid  on  the  jar  inside  the  net. 
Many  times  an  insect  at  rest  on  stem  or  flower 


56  INSECTA 

can  be  readily  caught  in  the  jar  by  sHpping  the 
open  jar  below  the  insect  and  quickly  knocking 
it  into  the  jar  with  the  lid. 

(2)  Net. 

(a)  Making.     ''For  a  handle  to  the  net  an  old  broom- 

stick may  be  used.  Bend  a  No.  3  galvanized 
wire  into  a  circle  about  a  foot  in  diameter,  turn- 
ing the  ends  of  the  wire  out.  A  hole  should  be 
made  in  the  end  of  the  handle  by  burning  it  with 
a  red  hot  iron,  or  by  boring  it  with  a  small  bit. 
Now  fasten  the  ends  of  the  wire  firmly  into  this 
with  pegs  or  nails.  Make  a  cheesecloth  sack  a 
yard  long,  round  off  one  corner  of  the  bottom, 
and  firmly  sew  the  open  end  to  the  wire."^ 

(b)  Using.     In  using,  give  the  net  a  light,  quick  swing. 

When  an  insect  is  caught,  throw  the  net  over  to 
one  side  so  the  insect  cannot  escape  at  the  top. 

Sweep  the  net  along  over  the  grass  or  the  tops  of 
bushes  as  you  pass,  and  insects  trying  to  escape 
will  fly  into  the  net.  Instead  of  chasing  a  butterfly, 
follow  it  cautiously  till  it  lights  and  quickly 
throw  the  net  over  it. 

As  to  the  manner  of  taking  the  insects  from  the  net, 
see  cyanid  jar  (1)  (b). 

(3)  Care  of  Specimens  while  collecting. 

If  only  a  few  insects  are  caught,  they  may  be  carried 
home  in  the  cyanid  jar,  and  even  allowed  to  remain 
in  it  over  night,  but  if  very  many  are  captured, 
some   will   be   damaged   by   crowding,   or   by   the 
struggles  of  those  afterward  put  into  the  jar. 
(a)  A  deep  cigar-box  may  be  used  to  good  advantage 
for  carrying  home  the  insects.     In  the  bottom  of 
the   box  put  a  layer  of   sheet  wadding,  then  a 
layer  of  glazed  or  tissue  paper,  then  a  layer  of 
insects.     Follow  this  by  alternate  laj^ers  of  wad- 
ding and  paper,  and  insects  as  needed,  putting  the 
glazed  paper  next  to  the  insects. 

^  Jackson  and  Daugherty's  "  Agriculture  Through  the  Laboratory  and 
School  Garden." 


68  INSECTA 

(b)  For  butterflies   and   other  insects  with   large   and 
beautiful  wings,  use  separate  papers  as  follows: 
Let  the  wings  of  the  butterfly  be  folded  over  its 
back.     Lay  it  on  its  side  on  a  rectangular  piece  of 
paper.     Fold  the  paper  down  over  the  butterfly, 
forming  a  triangle,  and  turn  the  margins  over  to 
keep  the  paper  closed. 
(4)  Breeding  Jar.     Prepare  several  breeding  jars  for  rear- 
ing insects  from  the  eggs  or  larvse.     Place  a  couple 
of  inches  of  sand  or  soil  in  the  bottom  of  a  quart 
fruit-jar,  cover  the  jar  with  a  piece  of  cheese-cloth, 
securing  it  in  place  by  a  small  rubber  band. 
When  insect  eggs  or  larvse    are  found,  place  them, 
together  with  a  portion  of  the  plant  on  which  they 
are  found,  in  the  jar.     Moisten  the  sand,  but  do 
not  make  it  too  wet,  and  renew  the  food  every  day. 
If  the  plant  food  is  too  far  away,  or  if  it  will  be  less 
trouble,  place  a  small  bottle  of  water  in  the  bottom 
of  the  breeding  jar,  and  keep  a  branch  of  the  food- 
plant  in  it.     Renew  this  as  needed,  for  caterpillars 
are  greedy,  and  you  will  need  to  keep  a  good  supply 
of  food  for  them. 
2.  Field  Trip. 
(1)  Habitat. 

(a)  Look  in  the  grass  and  wxeds,  under  stones  and 

boards  and  logs,  and  in  old  rotten  stumps,  on  the 
bark  of  trees,  in  galls  and  rolled-up  leaves,  and 
especially  upon  any  plants  having  leaves  full  of 
holes  or  with  ragged  edges. 

(b)  Look  on  the  surface  of  the  water  of  a  pond  or  slow 

stream.  Look  in  the  mud  along  the  edge,  or 
carry  som.e  of  the  muddy  water  back  in  a  breed- 
ing jar  and  let  it  stand  for  a  few  days.  Examine 
to  see  if  it  contains  any  insect  life. 

(c)  Look  flying  about  in  the  air. 

(d)  What  three  kinds  of  habitats  do  you  find  occupied 

by  insects?  Why  do  you  find  certain  kinds  of 
insects  in  one  place,  and  certain  others  in  different 
kinds  of  habitats? 


60  TNSECTA 

(2)  Adaptations.     What  special  adaptations  to  environ- 

ment do  you  find? 

(a)  Are  some  kinds  of  insects  harder  to  find  than  others? 

Why? 

(b)  Are  some  harder  to  capture  than  others?     Why? 

(3)  Food. 

(a)  Notice  carefully  upon  what  plant,  and  what  part 

of  the  plant,  each  kind  of  insect  is  feeding  when 
found. 

(b)  Notice  whether  there  are  any  holes  in  the  leaves  or 

stem  of  the  plant,   or  how  the  plant  has  been 
affected  by  the  insect. 

(4)  Effects  upon  Vegetation. 

(a)  If  there  are  any  holes  in  the  plant,  how  were  they 

made? 

(b)  In  what  stage  of  the  development  of  the  insect  was 

the  damage  done? 

(c)  How  would  you  get  rid  of  these  insects,  if  injuri- 

ous?^ 

(d)  Did  you  find  any  beneficial  insects?     If  so,  what  were 

they,  and  how  are  they  beneficial? 

(5)  Enemies. 

(a)  Did  you  observe  any  enemies  of  any  insect?     If  so, 

what?     Why  is  it  an  enemy? 

(b)  How  does  the  insect  escape  or  combat  these  enemies? 

(6)  What  examples  of  insect  architecture  or  industry  did 

you  find? 

(7)  Relationships. 

(a)  Did  you  see,  on  your  trip,  any  case  of  symbiosus 

among  insects,  or  among  insects  and  plants?     If 
so,  explain. 

(b)  Did  you  observe  any  social  life  among  insects?     If 

so,  describe. 

(8)  Description  of  the  Trip. 

After  reaching  home,  write  in  ink  a  brief  description 
of  this  trip,  covering  the  points  mentioned,  and 
hand  to  the  teacher. 

^See   "Insecticides,"  Jackson  and  Daugherty's  " Agriculture  Through 
the  Laboratory  and  School  Garden." 


62  INSECTA 

3.  Evening  Trip. 

(1)  Make  a  trip  to  the  electric  lights  in  the  evening  and 

you  will  find  many  beetles,  moths,  and  bugs;  or 
watch  for  the  ^'hawk-moths"  about  the  phlox  and 
nasturtium  beds. 

(2)  Spread  for  bait  a  thick  syrup  of  brown  sugar  upon  the 

bark  of  tree  trunks,  at  night.     Carry  a  lantern  and 
go  from  one  tree  to  another,  looking  carefully  for 
the  moths.     Quickly  put  the  mouth  of  the  cyanid 
jar  over  the  moth  while  it  is  feeding. 
Care  of  the  Specimens. — 1.  Spreading  Board.     The  wings 
of  the  larger  specimens  will  need  to  be  spread  before  they  dry 
out.     For  this  purpose,  take  a  soft  pine  board,  cover  it  with 
a  coarse  blotting-paper  or  a  sheet  of  cork.     In  each  side  of  the 
center  of  the  board  tack  four  or  five  thicknesses  of  blotting- 
paper,  leaving  a  space  of  about  one-half  inch  in  the  center  of 
the  board  as  a  groove  for  the  body  of  the  insect. 

Thrust  an  insect  pin  through  the  thorax  and  pin  the  body  in 
this  groove.  By  pushing  against  a  strong  vein  with  a  pin 
(not  with  the  fingers  or  you  will  spoil  the  beauty  of  the  speci- 
men) arrange  the  wings  so  that  the  posterior  margins  are  at 
right  angles  to  the  body,  and  the  anterior  margins  of  the  poste- 
rior wings  barely  touching  them.  Fasten  them  down  by  pin- 
ning narrow  strips  of  paper  over  them  near  the  body  and  allow 
them  to  remain  so  for  a  few  days. 

2.  Moistening  Jar.  If  the  specimens  get  dry  before  you  have 
mounted  them,  do  not  attempt  to  mount  them  until  they  have 
been  relaxed  by  placing  them  for  a  clay  or  two  in  a  closed  glass 
jar  with  a  layer  of  wet  sand  covered  with  a  dry  paper  in  the 
bottom. 

3.  The  Permanent  Insect  Case  must  be  very  tight  fitting 
and  covered  with  glass.  A  sheet  of  cork  should  line  the  bottom, 
and  the  appearance  is  greatly  improved  by  covering  this  cork 
with  w^hite  paper. 

LIFE-HISTORY 

Suggestion. — To  make  sure  of  an  entire  life-history  of  an 
insect,  if  the  time  is  short,  place  a  "blue-bottle"  or  "blow-fly" 
in  a  breeding  jar  with  a  piece  of  meat  on  which  to  lay  its  eggs. 
Watch  closely  as  soon  as  the  eggs  are  laid.     The  complete 


64  INSECTA 

development  from  egg  to  adult  requires  only  about  two  weeks, 
and  for  this  reason  the  fly  makes  a  good  study. 

Plant-feeding  caterpillars  are  less  repulsive,  and  the  cabbage 
butterfly  develops  in  a  few  weeks  and  makes  an  interesting 
study;  but  try  any  and  everything  you  find. 

1.  Development. 

(1)  Watch  the  development  of  the  eggs  or  larvae  in  the 

breeding  jar  from  day  to  day,  and  make  note  of  every 
change. 

(2)  If  you  can  get  them,  save  a  specimen  in  each  stage 

of  the  development  for  your  collection.     (Place  the 
larvae  in  a  solution  of  formaldehyd.) 

(3)  What  is  the  duration  of  each  stage  of  development? 

What  is  the  name  of  each  stage? 

(4)  Sketch  each  stage  in  your  notebook. 

2.  Activities. 

(1)  Observe  and  describe  the  following  activities: 

(a)  Eating. 

(b)  Crawling  or  walking. 

(c)  Molting  of  the  larvae. 

(d)  The  spinning  of  a  cocoon,  or  the  forming  of  a  pupa- 

case. 

(2)  Questions. 

(a)  Is  the  insect  herbivorous  or  carnivorous? 

(b)  How  does  it  obtain  its  food  in  each  stage  of  its  ex- 

istence— by  biting,  sucking,  or  lapping? 

(c)  Does  it  avoid  or  choose  the  light? 

3.  Economic  Importance. 

(1)  In  what  stage,  if  any,  is  it  injurious  to  vegetation? 

(2)  How  would  you  get  rid  of  it  if  injurious? 

(3)  Does  it  prey  upon  any  other  insects  in  any  stage  of  its 

development?    Is  it  preyed  upon  by  any  other  insect? 

4.  Intelligence. 

(1)  State  at  least  three  instincts  v/hich  you  have  seen  dis- 

played by  this  insect. 

(2)  Have  you  seen  any  intelligent  action?     If  so,  what? 

(3)  Try  an  original  experiment  to  see  if  you  can  make 

this  insect  choose  to  act  in  a  way  different  from  the 
usual  one.     Record  your  results. 


66  INSECTA 

SPRAYS  AND   SPRAYING 

There  are  three  classes  of  pests  which  may  be  combated  by 
spraying:  fungi,  sucking  insects,  and  biting  insects.  For 
spraying  fungi,  Bordeaux  mixture  has  long  been  used  with  suc- 
cess. The  only  objection  to  it  is  on  account  of  its  tendency  to 
injure  tender  foliage  and  the  delicate  skin  of  young  fruit.  On 
account  of  this,  lime  sulphur  is  often  used  as  a  fungicide  in  spray- 
ing. After  July  1  the  skin  of  apples  is  smoother  and  firmer  and 
not  so  easil}^  injured  by  the  Bordeaux.  Bordeaux  is  recom- 
mended also  for  apple  scab,  the  spray  to  be  applied  just  before 
the  blossoms  open.  Bordeaux  is  a  fungicide  only,  having  no 
effect  upon  insects,  while  lime  sulphur  acts  as  both  a  fungicide 
and  a  contact  insecticide. 

Insects  having  sucking  mouth-parts  are  not  affected  by  ar- 
senic sprays,  since  poison  placed  upon  the  surface  of  the  plant 
is  not  taken  into  the  stomach  with  the  food.  These  insects 
must  be  killed  by  contact  insecticides. 

Biting  insects  may  be  poisoned  by  arsenic  sprays,  since  they 
chew  and  swallow  the  food. 

Formulas  for  Spraying  Mixtures 

Fungicides. 

Bordeaux  mixture: 

Quick  lime,  3  to  6  pounds.   . 
Copper  sulphate,  3  to  6  pounds. 
Water,  50  gallons. 
Dissolve  the  copper  sulphate  in  water  in  an  earthen  jar  or 
wooden  pail  and  dilute  to  about  thirty  gallons.     Slake  the  lime, 
which  must  not  be  partially  air-slaked,  and  add  to  it  twenty 
gallons  of  water.     Now  mix  the  two  solutions  thoroughly  and 
strain  through  a  A\dre-cloth  strainer  into  the  spray  tank.     Two 
pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  may  be  added  to  this  mixture  if 
wanted  for  an  insecticide. 

Lime  sulphur  (for  spraying  against  San  Jose  scale) : 
Commercial  lime  sulphur,  1  gal. 
Water,  8  to  12  gal. 
For  summer  spraying  of  apples: 
Lime  sulphur,  1  gal. 
Water,  30  to  40  gal. 


68  INSECT A 

Contact  insecticides. 
Kerosene  emulsion: 
Soap,  I  pound. 
Kerosene,  2  gal. 
Rain  water,  1  gal. 
Shave  the  soap  and  dissolve  it  by  boiling  in  water.     Pour 
the  soap  solution,  while  boiling  hot,  into  the  kerosene  and  churn 
vigorously  by  pumping  the  liquid  back  and  forth  with  a  force 
pump  until  it  looks  like  buttermilk.     Keep  this  stock  solution 
tightly  sealed.     Before  using  dilute  with  from  ten  to  twenty 
parts  of  water. 

Nicotin  sulphate  or  blackleaf  40: 
Blackleaf  40,  |  pt. 
Soap,  3  lbs. 
Water,  100  gal. 
This  solution  will  be  found  valuable  for  spraying  plant  lice 
or  other  soft-bodied  insects.     The  soap  may  be  omitted  and  then 
the  spray  may  be  used  with  lime  sulphur  or  with  Bordeaux 
mixture. 

Insecticides  for  biting  insects. 
Paris  green: 

Paris  green,  1  lb. 
Quick  lime,  2  lbs. 
Water,  100  to  300  gal. 
Paris  green  may  be  combined  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  but 
never  with  lime  sulphur.     It  should  never  be  used  on  peach 
foliage.     Paris  green  may  be  applied  also  as  a  dust,  mixing  one 
pound  of  poison  to  twenty  pounds  of  cheap  flour. 
Arsenate  of  lead: 

Arsenate  of  lead,  2  lbs. 
Water,  50  gal. 
In  spraying  for  Curculio  on  apple  or  plum,  just  after  the 
blossoms  fall,  use  three  pounds  to  fifty  gallons  of  water. 
Hellebore : 

Hellebore,  1  lb. 
Water,  25  gal. 
This    spray   is    especially   useful   when   the   fruit — cherry, 
gooseberry,  or  currant — is  ripening,  since  it  soon  loses  its  poi- 


70  INSECTA 

sonous  character  when  exposed  to  the  air.     For  this  reason  care 
should  be  taken  to  get  it  fresh  or  it  will  have  no  effect. 

Spraying  Exercise. — Compute  the  proportions  required  for 
one  gallon  of  an  arsenic  spray  and  of  one  contact  insecticide. 
Carefully  prepare  each.  Spray  any  plants  you  find  infested 
by  insects  with  the  kind  which  the  condition  of  the  plants  leads 
you  to  think  is  required.  Examine  these  plants  in  a  day  or  two 
and  record  results.  Also  place  a  sprig  of  the  plant  sprayed  with 
each  insecticide  in  separate  breeding  jars.  Label  each  and  com- 
pare results. 

Insect  Studies 

Note. — For  a  first  morphologic  study,  use  large  grasshoppers 
and  take  all  of  the  External  and  Internal  Morphology.  Then 
follow  this  with  the  Systematic  Study  for  Arthropod  Branch 
Characteristics;  follow  this  with  the  Class  and  the  Ordinal 
Study.  The  grasshopper  belongs  to  Branch,  Arthropoda; 
Class,  Insecta;  Order,  Orthoptera. 

For  other  insects,  follow  the  same  plan  as  for  the  grasshopper, 
omitting  any  questions  which  do  not  apply  to  the  insect  in 
hand.  The  Internal  Morphology  may  also  be  omitted.  This 
plan  will  give  a  comparative  study  of  insects,  showing  their 
morphology,  and  bringing  out  the  principles  of  classification  for 
the  branch,  class,  and  orders  to  which  the  insects  belong. 

The  student  will  notice  that  all  insects  belong  to  the  same 
branch  and  class,  but  to  different  orders.  Notice  carefully  the 
branch  characteristics  and  then  the  class  characteristics. 
Upon  what  is  the  classification  based?  Is  it  structure?  Is 
it  plan  of  structure?     Is  it  development? 

THE   GRASSHOPPER 

Morphophysiologic  Study 

A.  External   Morphology 
I.  The  Skeleton. 

1.  Is  the  skeleton  external  or  internal? 

2.  Character  or  composition? 

3.  Uses? 


72  INSECTA 

II.  Body  Divisions. 


The  Head. 

(1)  Its  shape? 

(2)  Its  size  compared  with  the  body? 

(3)  Its  color? 

(4)  Its  mode  of  attachment  to  the  thorax? 

(5)  Its  one  marked  pecuUarity? 

(6)  The  Antennae,  or  Feelers. 

(a)  Number? 

(b)  Shape? 

(c)   Location  on  the  head? 

(d)  Number  of  segments? 

(e)  Use? 

(7)  The  Compound  Eyes. 

(a)  Number? 

(b)  Shape? 

(c)  Sessile  or  stalked? 

(d)  Location  on  head? 

(f)    Color? 

(g)  Use? 

(8)  The  Simple  Eyes. 

(a)  Number? 

(b)  Shape? 

(c)   Color? 

(d)  Location  on  head? 

(e)  Use? 

(9)  The  Labrum,  or  Upper  Lip. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Color? 

(c)  Size? 

(d)  Motion? 

(e)  Use? 

(10)  The  Mandibles  are  just  below  the  labrum, 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Size? 

(c)  Color? 

(d)  Number? 

(e)  Use? 

74 


INSECTA 


(11)  The  Maxillae,  or  little  jaws,  are  just  below  the  man- 
dibles. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Size? 

(c)  Color? 


Tarsus 
Tibi 


,^^^ohmm{j 


Fig.  2. — External  anatomy  of  Calopetnus  spretus,  the  head  and  thorax 
disjointed:  up,  Uropatagium ;  /,  furcula;  c,  cercus.  (Drawn  by  J.  S.  Ivings- 
ley.)     (From  Packard's  Zoology.) 


(d)  Number? 

(e)  Use? 

(12)  The  Maxillary  Palpi, 
(a)  Number  on  each  side? 


76  INSECTA 

(b)  Number  of  segments  to  each  palpus? 

(c)  Motion? 

(d)  Use? 

(13)  The  Labium,  or  Lower  Lip. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Color? 

(c)  Size? 

(d)  Motion? 

(e)  Use? 

(14)  The  Labial  Palpi. 

(a)  Number  on  each  side? 

(b)  Number  of  segments  to  each  palpus? 

(c)  Motion? 

(d)  Use? 

(15)  Sketch  front  or  side  view  of  the  head,  much  enlarged. 

Show  all  the  parts  you  can. 

(16)  Mouth-parts.     Remove  the  mouth-parts  from  one  side 

and  sketch. 

(a)  Mouth-parts  adapted  for  (1)  sucking  or  (2)  biting? 

(b)  Mouth-parts  united  into  tube  or  free? 

(c)  Why  so  many  or  so  few  parts,  as  the  case  may  be? 
2.  The  Thorax. 

(1)  Shape? 

(2)  Size  compared  with  the  head? 

(3)  Size  compared  with  the  abdomen? 

(4)  Number  of  spiracles? 

(5)  Covering? 

(6)  Divisions.      In  the  grasshopper  the  thorax  has  three 

divisions. 

(a)  The  Prothorax  or  cape,  as  seen  in  the  grasshopper, 

just  back  of  the  head. 

(1)  Shape? 

(2)  Color? 

(3)  Number  of  appendages,  as  legs  or  wings? 

(4)  Number  of  spiracles,  if  any? 

(b)  The  Mesothorax  just  posterior  to  the  prothorax. 

Same  questions  as  for  prothorax. 

(c)  The  Metathorax. 

Same  questions  as  for  the  prothorax. 


78  INSECTA 

(7)  The  Legs. 

(a)  Number  of  pairs? 

(b)  Are  they  of  the  same  size,  or  do  they  vary? 

(c)  The  segments  in  order,  beginning  at  the  body  of  the 

grasshopper,  are:  coxa,  trochanter,  femur,  tibia, 
tarsus  of  foot.  Sketch  one  leg,  much  enlarged, 
and  name  the  parts  present. 

(d)  Compare  first  pair  of  legs  with  second  pair,  segment 

for  segment,  noting  similarities  and  differences. 

(e)  Compare  second  and  third  pairs. 

(8)  The  Wings. 

(a)  Number? 

(b)  Location? 

(c)  Color  above? 

(d)  Color  below? 

(e)  Covering  scaly,  smooth,  or  hairy? 

(f)  Anterior  and  posterior  wings  equal  in  size? 

(g)  Anterior  and  posterior  wings  of  same  thickness? 
(h)  How  folded  when  at  rest?     When  in  motion? 

(i)    Wings  analogous  or  homologous  to  the  wings  of  a 
bird? 

(j)    Sketch  the  wings  extended,  putting  in  all  the  mark- 
ings. 
3.  The  Abdomen. 

(1)  Shape? 

(2)  Size  compared  with  the  thorax? 

(3)  Covering? 

(4)  Number  of  segments? 

(5)  Ovipositor  present  or  absent? 

(6)  The  Sting  present  or  absent? 

(a)  Why? 

(b)  Why  not  found  in  all  insects? 

(7)  Tympana,  on  first   abdominal   segment  of  the  grass- 

hopper. If  your  specimen  is  not  a  grasshopper,  you 
may  have  to  look  elsewhere  for  them.  If  you  do  not 
find  them,  consult  a  large  work  on  insects  (Kellogg 
or  Comstock). 

(a)  Size  of  tympana? 

(b)  Number? 


80  INSECTA 

(c)  Use? 

(d)  Color? 

(8)  The  Spiracles. 

(a)  Number  to  each  segment? 

(b)  Total  number? 

(c)  Use? 

(9)  Sketch  the  abdomen,  much  enlarged.    Name  the  parts 

present. 

B.  Internal   Morphology 

Pin  a  large  female  insect  down  in  a  wax-bottomed  pan  or  on  a 
soft  pine  board,  dorsal  side  up.  Dissect  under  water.  With 
sharp  scissors  carefully  cut  through  the  body  wall  of  the 
abdomen  and  expose  the  internal  organs  by  removing  the  upper 
portion  of  the  body  wall.     Use  a  fresh  specimen. 

1.  The  Circulatory  System.  Cut  forward  along  the  dorsal 
side  and  find  small  tubular  organ  called  the  heart. 

(1)  Trace  it. 

(2)  Sketch  it. 

(3)  Plan  of  grasshopper's  circulatory  system. 

(a)  Any  arteries,  veins,  capillaries? 

(b)  Closed  or  open  circulation? 

2.  The  Respiratory  System. 

(1)  The  air-sacs  in  grasshoppers  are  tiny  white  sacs  along 

the  sides  of  the  abdomen. 

(a)  How  many  to  each  segment?     Remove  the  dorsal 

wall  and  see. 

(b)  How  many  in  all? 

(c)  Uses? 

(2)  The  tracheae  are  white  branching  tubes. 

(a)  How  are  they  connected  with  the  air-sacs? 

(b)  Uses? 

(3)  Plan  of  respiratory  system. 

(a)  Is  it  connected  with  the  circulatory  system? 

(b)  If  so,  how? 

(c)  If  so,  why? 

3.  The  Reproductive  System. 

(1)  In  a  female  specimen  you  will  generally  find  the  yellow 
eggs  in  rows  on  each  side. 


82 


INSECTA 


(a)  How  many  rows? 

(b)  How  many  eggs  (ova)  in  one  row? 

(c)  How  many  ova  in  all? 

(d)  If  each  ovum  had  matured  into  a  grasshopper,  how 

manj'^  individuals  would  have  descended  from  this 
insect  in  five  years,  barring  accidents  to  the  ova 
or  to  the  young? 
(2)  Trace  oviduct  to  ovipositor. 


Fig.  3. — Internal  anatomy  of  Caloptenus  femur-rubrum:  at,  antenna  and 
nerve  leading  to  it  from  the  "brain"  or  supra-esophageal  ganglion  (sp); 
oc,  ocelli,  anterior  and  vertical  ones,  with  ocellar  nerves  leading  to  them 
from  the  "brain  ";  ob,  esophagus;  m,  mouth;  lb,  labium  or  under  lip;  if, 
infra-esophageal  ganglion,  sending  three  pairs  of  nerves  to  the  mandibles, 
maxillae,  and  labium  respectively  (not  clearly  shown  in  the  engraving); 
sm,  sympathetic  or  vagus  nerve,  starting  from  a  ganglion  resting  above 
the  esophagus,  and  connecting  with  another  ganglion  {sg)  near  the  hinder 
end  of  the  crop;  sal,  salivary  glands  (the  termination  of  the  salivary  duct 
not  clearly  shown  by  the  engraver) ;  nv,  nervous  cord  and  ganglia ;  ov, 
ovary;  ur,  urinary  tubes  (cut  off,  leaving  the  stumps);  ovt,  oviduct;  sb, 
sebaceous  gland;  be,  bursa  copulatrix;  ovt',  site  of  opening  of  the  oviduct 
(the  left  o\aduct  cut  away) ;  1-10,  abdominal  segments.  The  other  organs 
labeled  in  full.  (Drawn  from  his  original  dissections  by  Mr,  Edward  Bur- 
.)     (From  Packard's  Zoology.) 


The  Digestive  System. 

(1)  The  Mouth. 

(a)  Location? 

(b)  Shape? 

(c)  Size? 

(d)  Mouth-parts  present? 

(2)  The  Tongue. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Size? 

(c)  Color? 

(d)  Use? 


84  INSECTA 

(3)  The  Esophagus,  a  short  tube  leading  into  the  crop. 

Use? 

(4)  The  Crop.     Note  where  the  esophagus  begins  to  en- 

large. 

(a)  Size? 

(b)  Shape? 

(c)  Use? 

(5)  The  Salivary  Glands,  grape-like  or  mulberry-like  clus- 

ters about  the  crop. 
Use? 

(6)  The  Gastric  Ceca  (in  the  grasshopper)  are  small  worm- 

like appendages  back  of  the  crop. 

(a)  Number? 

(b)  To  what  attached? 

(c)  Use? 

(7)  The  Stomach.      Just  back  of  the  gastric  cseca  the  ali- 

mentary canal  enlarges  into  the  true  stomach. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Size? 

(c)  Use? 

(8)  The  Malpighian  Tubes  are  long,  small,  tubular  organs 

at  the  posterior  end  of  the  stomach. 

(a)  Color? 

(b)  Size? 

(c)  Shape? 

(d)  Use? 

(9)  The  Intestines. 

(a)  Straight  or  coiled? 

(b)  Use? 

(c)  In  what  segment  do  they  terminate? 

(10)  Diagram  or  sketch  the  alimentary  tube  of  the  grass- 
hopper, and  name  its  parts  in  order  from  the  mouth 
to  the  vent. 
5.  The  Nervous  System.     Look  for  a  white  cord  along  the 
floor  of  the  abdomen. 

(1)  Is  the  cord  single  or  double? 

(2)  How  many  ganglia  to  a  segment? 

(3)  How  many  ganglia  in  all? 

(4)  Trace  nerves  to  the  legs. 


86  INSECTA 

(5)  Trace  nerves  to  the  wings. 

(6)  Trace  nerves  to  the  eyes. 

(7)  The  Special  Senses. 

(a)  The  eyes. 

(1)  Kind? 

(2)  Location? 

(b)  The  ears. 

Location? 

(c)  The  tongue. 

Taste  dull  or  acute? 

(d)  Organs  of  smell. 

Location? 

THE  BUTTERFLY 

Morphophysiologic  Study 

1.  Skeleton. 

(1)  External  or  internal? 

(2)  Character? 

(3)  Outgrowths  or  covering. 

(a)  Of  the  body? 

(b)  Of  the  wings? 

2.  The  Head. 

(1)  Shape? 

(2)  Antennae. 

(a)  Shape?     How  do  they  differ  from  those  of  the  moth? 

(b)  Location  on  head? 

(c)  Number  of  segments? 

(d)  Use? 

(3)  Compound  Eyes. 

(a)  Number? 

(b)  Shape? 

(c)  Sessile  or  stalked? 

(d)  Location  on  the  head? 

(e)  Color? 

(f)  Use? 

(4)  Mouth-parts.     The  mouth-parts  are  rather  difficult  for 

the  beginner  to  identify, 
(a)  The  proboscis,  or  sucking  organ,  is  a  long  coiled  tube 
composed  of  the  modified  maxillae. 


88  INSECTA 

(b)  Labial  palpi.     Look  on  each  side  of  the  sucking  tube 
for  the  jointed  appendage. 

(1)  How  many  segments? 

(2)  Are  the  palpi  naked  or  hairy? 
3.  The  Thorax. 

(1)  How  does  it  differ  from  the  thorax  of  the  grasshopper? 


Fig.  4. — Ideal  transverse  section  of  an  insect :  h,  Dorsal  vessel ;  i,  intes- 
tine; n,  ventral  nerve-cord;  1 1,  stigmata  leading  into  the  branched  tracheal 
tubes;  ww,  wings;  a,  coxa  of  one  leg;  b,  trochanter;  c,  femur;  d,  tibia;  e, 
tarsus.     (After  Packard.) 

(2)  The  Wings. 

(a)  Number? 

(b)  Location? 

(c)  Color  above?     Below? 

(d)  Any  differences  between  anterior  and  posterior  wings? 

If  so,  what? 

(e)  How  folded  when  at  rest? 

(f)  Covered  with  scales,  naked,  or  hairy?     Place  a  por- 

tion of  a  wing  under  the  microscope,  and  draw 
several  scales.  Do  you  find  any  transparent  spots 
where  the  scales  have  rubbed  off? 


90  INSECTA 

(3)  The  Legs. 

(a)  Number  of  pairs? 

(b)  Size.     Are  they  equal  in  size,  or  do  they  vary? 

(e)   Compare  the  first  pair  with  the  second  and  third 
pairs,  segment  for  segment. 

4.  Abdomen. 

(1)  Shape  and  size  as  compared  with  that  of  the  grasshop- 

per?    As  compared  with  that  of  the  moth? 

(2)  Covering? 

(3)  Number  of  segments? 

(4)  Ovipositor  present  or  absent? 

(5)  Sting  present  or  absent?     Why? 

5.  Metamorphosis. 

(1)  Complete  or  incomplete? 

(2)  Larvae  called  what? 

THE  HONEY-BEE  OR  THE  BUMBLE  BEE 

Morphophysiologic  Study 

1.  Covering. 

What  is  the  character  of  the  covering  of  the  head  and 
thorax? 

2.  Antennae. 

(1)  Number? 

(2)  Location? 

(3)  Is  there  any  peculiarity  about  the  antennae?     If  so, 

what? 

3.  Compound  Eyes. 

(1)  Size? 

(2)  Location? 

4.  Simple  Eyes. 

(1)  Locate  the  three  simple  eyes. 

(2)  How  are  they  arranged? 

5.  Mouth-parts. 

(1)  Mandibles. 

(a)  Are  they  adapted  for  digging  or  for  molding  wax? 

(b)  Shape? 

(2)  Proboscis.     Pick  apart  the  proboscis  and  identify, 
(a)  The  elongated  labium. 


92  INSECTA 

(b)  The  maxillae,  the  two  blades  above  the  tongue. 

(c)  The  slender  labial  palpi  below  the  tongue. 

6.  The  Wings. 

(1)  Are  the  posterior  and  anterior  pairs  equal  in  size? 

(2)  How  are  the  wings  arranged  when  at  rest?     When  in 

motion? 

(3)  What  peculiarities  about  them? 

(4)  Are  the  wings  thick  and  opaque  or  membranous  and 

transparent? 

7.  The  Legs. 

(1)  Are  the  legs  alike? 

(2)  Compare  the  posterior  legs,  segment  for  segment,  with 

those  of  the  grasshopper. 

(3)  What  special  adaptation  do  you  find  in  the  tibise? 

(4)  How  do  the  basal  joints  of  the  tarsi  differ  from  those  of 

the  other  legs? 

(5)  For  what  are  the  cutting  edges  between  the  two  large 

segments  adapted? 

8.  The  Abdomen. 

(1)  Shape? 

(2)  Segments? 

(a)  Number? 

(b)  What  is  the  peculiarity  of  the  anterior  segment? 

(c)  Of  the  second  anterior  segment? 

(d)  Can  the  abdomen  be  bent  under  the  thorax?     If  so, 

purpose? 

(3)  The  Sting.     If  your  specimen  is  a  female,  examine  and 

describe  the  sting. 
Why  has  the  male  no  sting? 


THE  HOUSE  FLY 

Morphophysiologic  Study 

In  this  study  a  good  magnifying  glass  or  dissecting  microscope 
will  be  needed. 

1.  How  are  the  head  and  thorax  united?     The  thorax  and  the 
abdomen? 

2.  With  what  is  the  body  covered? 


94  INSECTA 

3.  Head. 

(1)  Antennae. 

(a)  Location? 

(b)  Number  of  segments? 

(c)  Use? 

(2)  Compound  Eyes. 

(a)  Location? 

(b)  Size? 

(c)  Shape  of  facets? 

(3)  Simple  Eyes. 

(a)  Location? 

(b)  Number? 

(4)  Mouth-parts.     Straighten  out  the  proboscis  which  is 

bent  back  under  the  head,  and  examine  it  with  a  good 
dissecting  microscope  or  with  the  low  power  of  a 
compound  microscope. 

(a)  The  tongue  is  the  labium  modified  or  the  under  lip, 

and  the  divisions  at  its  end  are  the  labial  palpi. 
Are  they  smooth  or  rough? 

(b)  Mandibles.     On  the  head  near  the  base  of  the  tongue 

look  for  the  slender,  rudimentary  mandibles. 

(c)  Maxillary  Palpi.      On  the  shaft  of  the  tongue  find 

the  hairy,  segmented  maxillary  palpi. 

(d)  Sketch  the  mouth-parts  as  you  see  them.     Compare 

with  a  good  cut  and  name  the  parts  shown  in  your 
figure. 

(e)  Are  the  mouth-parts  adapted  for  biting,  sucking,  or 

lapping? 

4.  Thorax. 
(1)  Wings. 

(a)  How  many  developed  wings? 

(b)  How  are  they  arranged  when  at  rest?     Show  by 

sketch. 

(c)  Look  behind  the  wings  for  a  pair  of  scales  or  mem- 

branes— the  alulets. 

(d)  Under  the  alulets  look  for  a  pair  of  pin-like  append- 

ages ending  in  a  knob.  These  are  called  ''balan- 
cers," and  it  is  believed  that  their  function  is  sen- 
sory. 


96  INSECTA 

(1)  What  organs  in  man  are  the  ''balancers"  or  the 

organs  of  the  sense  of  equihbrium? 

(2)  Sketch  the  alulets  and  the  ''balancers"  as  you  see 

them. 

(2)  The  Legs. 

(a)  Are  they  alike? 

(b)  Are  they  fitted  for  running  or  for  jumping? 

(c)  Are  there  any  hooks  or  pads  on  the  feet?     If  so,  of 

what  use  are  the  pads? 

(d)  How  does  the  fly   walk  on  the  ceiling?     Can  the 

grasshopper,  beetle,  or  crayfish  walk  on  the  ceil- 
ing? 
5.  Abdomen. 
(1)  Shape? 
.     (2)  Size? 

(3)  Number  of  segments? 

(4)  Ovipositor  or  sting  present? 

HEMIPTERA 

The  Squash  Bug,  or  the  Cicada 

The  bugs,  cicadas,  squash  bugs,  plant  lice,  etc.,  have  a  sucking 
beak.  The  mandibles  and  maxillae  appear  as  slender,  bristle- 
like organs,  for  which  the  lower  lip  forms  a  sheath. 

1.  The  Sucking  Beak.  Look  on  the  ventral  side  for  the 
beak.  Examine  it  with  a  glass  and  make  out  the  following 
parts : 

(1)  Sheath  formed  of  lower  lip. 

(2)  Mandibles  and  maxillae,  four  slender  bristle-like  organs 

within  the  sheath. 

2.  Wings.  Do  you  find  half  of  the  anterior  wings  hardened, 
as  the  name  (hemi,  half,  pteron,  wing)  indicates? 

3.  Insecticide.  The  aphides,  or  plant  lice,  and  the  scale 
insects  belong  to  this  order.  Would  you  exterminate  them 
by  poison  insecticide,  contact  insecticide,  or  by  a  "smudge"? 

Prepare  several  spraying  solutions  (see  pages  66  and  68) 
and  experiment  with  them  upon  plants  infested  with  plant 
lice  or  squash  bugs.  Be  careful  not  to  have  the  solutions  too 
strong.     Record  and  explain  results. 


98 


INSECTA 


THE  BEETLE 1 
Morphophysiologic  Study 

External  Morphology 

I.  The  Skeleton. 

1    Is  the  skeleton  external  or  internal? 

2.  Character  or  composition? 

3.  Uses? 

II.  Body  Divisions. 
1.  The  Head. 

(1)  Its  shape? 

(2)  Its  size  compared  with  the  body? 

(3)  Its  color? 

(4)  Its  mode  of  attachment  to  the  thorax? 

(5)  Its  one  marked  peculiarity? 

(6)  The  Antennse,  or  Feelers. 

(a)  Number? 

(b)  Shape? 

(c)  Location  on  the  head? 

(d)  Number  of  segments? 

(e)  Use? 

(7)  The  Compound  Eyes. 

(a)  Number? 

(b)  Shape? 

(c)  Sessile  or  stalked? 

(d)  Location  on  head? 

(f)  Color? 

(g)  Use? 

(8)  The  Simple  Eyes,  if  present. 

(a)  Number? 

(b)  Shape? 

(c)  Color? 

(d)  Location  on  head? 

(e)  Use? 

(9)  The  Labrum,  or  Upper  Lip. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Color? 

iSee  Fig.  119  of  Part  II,  "  Principles  of  Economic  Zoology. 


100  INSECTA 

(c)  Size? 

(d)  Motion? 

(e)  Use? 

(10)  The  Mandibles. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Size? 

(c)  Color? 

(d)  Number? 

(e)  Use? 

(11)  The  Maxillae. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Size? 

(c)  Color? 

(d)  Number? 

(e)  Use? 

(12)  The  Maxillary  Palpi. 

(a)  Number  on  each  side? 

(b)  Number  of  segments  to  each  palpus? 

(c)  Motion? 

(d)  Use? 

(13)  The  Labium,  or  Lower  Lip. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Color? 

(c)  Size? 

(d)  Motion? 

(e)  Use? 

(14)  The  Labial  Palpi. 

(a)  Number  on  each  side? 

(b)  Number  of  segments  to  each  palpus? 

(c)  Motion? 

(d)  Use? 

(15)  Sketch  front  or  side  view  of  the  head,  much  enlarged. 

Show  all  the  parts  you  can. 

(16)  Mouth-parts.     Remove  the  mouth-parts  from  one  side 

and  sketch. 

(a)  Mouth-parts  adapted  for  (1)  sucking  or  (2)  biting? 

(b)  Mouth-parts  united  into  tube  or  free? 

(c)  Why  so  many  or  so  few  parts,  as  the  case  may 

be? 


102  INSECTA 

2.  The  Thorax. 

(1)  Shape? 

(2)  Size  compared  with  the  head? 

(3)  Size  compared  with  the  abdomen? 

(4)  Covering? 

(5)  Divisions.     In  the  grasshopper  the  thorax  has  three 

divisions.     Has  this  insect's  thorax  three  divisions? 

(6)  The  Legs. 

(a)  Number  of  pairs? 

(b)  Are  they  of  the  same  size,  or  do  they  vary? 

(c)  The  segments  in  order,  beginning  at  the  body  are: 

coxa,  trochanter,  femur,  tibia,  tarsus,  or  foot. 
Sketch  one  leg,  much  enlarged,  and  name  the  parts 
present. 

(d)  Compare  first  pair  of  legs  with  second  pair,  segment 

for  segment,  noting  similarities  and  differences. 

(e)  Compare  second  and  third  pairs. 

(7)  The  Wings. 

(a)  Number? 

(b)  Location? 

(c)  Color  above? 

(d)  Color  below? 

(e)  Covering  scaly,  smooth,  or  hairy? 

(f)  Anterior  and  posterior  wings  equal  in  size? 

(g)  Anterior  and  posterior  wings  of  same  thickness? 
(h)  How  folded  when  at  rest?     When  in  motion? 

(i)  Wings  analogous  or  homologous  to  the  wings  of  a 
bird? 

(j)  Sketch  the  wings  extended,  putting  in  all  the  mark- 
ings. 

3.  The  Abdomen. 

(1)  Shape? 

(2)  Size  compared  with  the  thorax? 

(3)  Covering? 

(4)  Number  of  segments? 

(5)  Ovipositor  present  or  absent? 

(6)  Sting  present  or  absent? 

(a)  Why? 

(b)  Why  not  found  in  all  insects? 


104  INSECTA 

(7)  Sketch  the  abdomen,  much  enlarged.     Name  the  parts 

present. 

(8)  Metamorphosis    complete    or     incomplete?       Stages 

called 

SYSTEMATIC   STUDY  FOR  BRANCH  ARTHROPODA 

Use  many  different  arthropoda  for  this  study. 

1.  The  Body. 

(1)  Segmented  or  unsegmented? 

(2)  Symmetry? 

(3)  Body  cavities.     One,  the  haemal.     What  systems  does 

it  contain? 

(4)  The  external  skeleton  (exoskeleton) . 

(a)  Of  what  does  it  consist? 

(b)  Use? 

2.  The  Appendages  or  Limbs. 

(1)  Segmented  or  unsegmented? 

(2)  Number? 

(3)  Called  what? 

(4)  Position  on  the  body? 

(5)  Use? 

3.  It  belongs  to  Branch  Arthropoda  because  it  has  the  fol- 
lowing Arthropod  branch  characteristics :  (Name  the  character- 
istics you  have  discovered  and  compare  with  those  given  in  the 
text.) 

SYSTEMATIC  STUDY  FOR  THE  CLASSES  OF  ARTHROPODA 

(Use  a  crayfish,  an  insect,  a  spider,  and  a  ''thousand-legs.") 

1.  Shape  of  each? 

2.  Number  of  segments  in  each? 

3.  Body  divisions. 

(1)  Do  they  show  any  body  divisions? 

(2)  If  so,  are  they  divided  into  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen, 

or  into  cephalothorax  and  abdomen? 

4.  Covering  of  each. 

If  any,  called  what? 

5.  Antennae  wanting,  or  one  or  two  pairs? 

6.  Eyes.     Compound,  simple,  or  both? 


106  INSECTA 

7.  Appendages. 

(1)  How  many,  and  what? 

(2)  If  there  are  body  divisions,  how  many  appendages  are 

there — 

(a)  On  the  thorax  or  cephalothorax? 

(b)  On  the  abdomen? 

8.  Respiration.     By  means  of  what? 

9.  This  arthropod  has  the  following  class  characteristics: 
(Name  the  characteristics  you  have  discovered  and  compare 
with  those  given  in  the  text.)   Hence,  it  belongs  to  Class 

ORDINAL   STUDY  FOR  CLASS  INSECTA 

Use  insects  of  different  orders  for  this  study. 

1.  Mouth-parts. 

Are  they  adapted  for  biting,  sucking,  or  lapping,  or  for 
any  two  of  these  processes? 

2.  Thorax. 

(1)  Are  the  divisions  prothorax,  mesothorax,  and  meta- 

thorax  distinct? 

(2)  If  not,  how  do  you  account  for  differences  discovered? 

(3)  Wings. 

(a)  Number? 

(b)  Shape? 

(c)  Membranous,  thick,  or  scaly? 

(d)  Similarity. 

(1)  If  there  are  two  pairs,  are  the  anterior  and  posterior 

pairs  equal  in  size? 

(2)  Are  they  of  the  same  thickness? 

(e)  Covering.     Naked  or  covered  with  hairs  or  scales? 

(f)  Position. 

(1)  Folded  when  at  rest?     If  so,  how? 

(2)  Folded  when  in  motion? 

(g)  Any  other  ordinal  characteristics  of  wings? 

(4)  The  Legs. 

(a)  Strong  or  weak?     Why? 

(b)  Similarity. 

(1)  Are  the  legs  alike  in  shape  and  size? 

(2)  Any  adaptations? 

(c)  Feet.     Clawed?    Padded? 


108  INSECTA 

3.  The  Abdomen. 

(1)  Shape? 

(2)  Number  of  segments  or  somites? 

(3)  Any  appendages  of  the  abdomen,  as  the  ovipositor, 

sting,   or  some  other  appendages  peculiar  to  this 
order? 

(4)  Any  other  ordinal  peculiarity? 

4.  Metamorphosis. 

(1)  Complete  or  incomplete? 

(2)  Larval  stage  called  what? 

5.  Odor.     Any  distinctive  odor? 

6.  This  insect  has  the  following  ordinal  characteristics: 
(Name  those  you  have  discovered — see  text  for  ordinal  charac- 
teristics.)    Hence,  it  belongs  to  Order 

See  descriptive  zoologies  for  the  Orders  of  Insects. 

COMPARATIVE  SYSTEMATIC   STUDY 

(See  page  110.) 

For  this  study  the  teacher  should  select  a  dozen  or  more  differ- 
ent insects  representing  a  number  of  orders,  but  he  should  have 
several  insects  belonging  to  each  order  represented,  such  as 
grasshoppers,  crickets,  and  walking-sticks;  butterflies  and 
moths;  giant  water-bugs,  chinch-bugs,  and  cicadas;  fire-flies, 
June-bugs,  and  lady-beetles;  wasps,  honey-bees,  and  bumble- 
bees. 

Let  the  student  write  a  brief  description  of  each  insect, 
placing  each  characteristic  in  the  column  designated  on 
page  110. 

When  this  is  completed,  check  thus  (*)  all  the  points  in  the 
description  which  are  the  same  for  all  insects,  and  compare 
them  with  the  class  characteristics  given  in  the  text  or  in  some 
good  work  on  insects. 

Check  thus  ( t)  all  points  which  agree  for  several  insects,  and 
thus  (t)  those  which  are  alike  for  several  others,  and  thus  (x) 
for  those  of  others. 

Compare  those  points  in  which  all  the  insects  in  each  small 
group  agree  with  the  ordinal  characteristics  given  in  some  work 
on  insects,  or  in  the  text,  for  the  orders  represented. 


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PISCES    (THE   FISH) 

Take  the  Study  of  a  Live  Fish. 

Take  all  applicable  points  of  General  Studies,  I,  II,  III. 

Take  Special  Morphophysiologic  Study. 

Take  Systematic  Study  for  Branch  Chordata  and  Class 
Pisces.     See  p.  128. 

Take  Final  Study. 

Give  your  best  definition  of  a  fish. 

Make  an  oral  recitation  of  ten  minutes  on  fishes. 

Write  a  theme  on  the  fish,  using,  in  connected  form,  the  facts 
you  have  gathered  in  your  studies.  Illustrate  with  good 
sketches. 

STUDY  OF  A  LIVE  FISH 

1.  Collecting.  If  fishes  are  studied  in  a  suitable  season,  each 
student  should  be  required  to  capture  and  bring  to  the  labora- 
tory at  least  one  live  fish,  reporting  on  the  following  outline : 

(1)  Habits  and  habitat. 

(a)  Does  the  kind  of  fish  you  caught  live  in  shallow  or 

deep  water?     Why? 

(b)  Does  it  live  in  still  or  running  water?     Why? 

(c)  In  clear  or  muddy  water?     Why? 

(d)  Does  it  live  near  the  surface,  or  at  the  bottom  of  the 

stream? 

(e)  Does  it  move  slowly  or  swiftly? 

(f)  Is  it  a  "game"  fish  or  is  it  easy  to  capture? 

(g)  Did  you  fish  with  pole  or  with  trot-line?     In  the 

daytime  or  at  night? 
(h)  Is  this  fish  solitary  or  gregarious? 
(i)    What  is  a  company  of  fishes  called-? 

(2)  Food.     Use  various  kinds  of  bait. 

(a)  What  kinds  of  fish  did  you  catch  with  each  kind  of 

bait? 

(b)  Is  this  fish  carnivorous,  herbivorous,  or  omnivorous? 
112 


114  PISCES  (the  fish) 

(c)  Does  this  fish  feed  in  the  daytime  or  in  the  evening 
and  at  night? 

(3)  Concealment. 

(a)  Where  does  this  fish  hide? 

(b)  For  what  purpose  or  purposes  does  it  hide? 

(c)  Has  it  an}^  natural  means  of  concealment?   If  so,  what? 

(4)  Senses. 

(a)  What  evidences  have  you  as  to  whether  or  not  fishes 

can  hear? 

(b)  Evidences  that  they  can  smell? 

(c)  Evidences  that  they  see? 
2.  Laboratory  Study. 

(1)  Locomotion. 

(a)  Just  how  is  locomotion  accomplished  by  this  fish? 

What  fin  or  fins  are  most  used  in  locomotion? 

(b)  Experiment  and  find  out  the  use  of  the  paired  fins. 

(1)  Keeping  the  fish  under  the  water,  pass  a  rubber 

band  over  the  pectoral  fins  so  as  to  hold  them 
close  against  the  body.^     What  effect  does  this 
'*'  have  upon  the  position  of  the  body? 

(2)  Same  as  (1)  for  the  ventral  fins. 

(2)  Respiration. 

(a)  Watch  the  movements  of  the  mouth  and  gill  covers. 

(b)  Experiment  and  find  out  whether  the  water  moves 

over  the  gills  and  out  through  the  mouth,  or  in 
at  the  mouth  and  out  over  the  gills. 

(3)  Feeding.     Try  several  kinds  of  food. 

(a)  Does  it  have  any  choice?     If  so,  by  what  sense  does 

it  choose  its  food? 

(b)  Feed  it  at  various  times  in  the  day  or  night.    Results? 

(c)  How  does  it  take  its  food? 

(4)  Senses. 

(a)  Experiment  and  find  out  whether  it  sees  or  hears 

you  first.     Which  of  these  senses  is  of  the  greatest 
value  in  warning  it  of  danger? 

(b)  What  is  its  range  of  sight? 

(c)  Does  it  ever  close  its  eyes  or  wink?     Why? 

(d)  Has  it  any  voice  or  song?     Why? 

^Colton's  "Practical  Zoology." 


116  PISCES    (THE    fish) 

(e)  Have  you  found  any  evidence  that  the  fish  can  taste? 

(f)  Where  is  the  fish  most  sensitive  to  touch?     Is  it  sen- 

sitive to  a  jarring  or  stirring  of  the  water  if  there 
is  no  sound? 

(5)  What  means  of  defense  has  this  fish? 

(6)  Do  fishes  ever  play? 

(7)  Do  they  ever  sleep? 

THE  SUNFISH 

Morphophysiologic  Study 

A.  External  Morphology 

1.  Shape?     Use  of  this  particular  shape  to  the  sunfish? 

2.  Length  of  sunfish  from  tip  of  nose  to  caudal  fin? 

3.  Thickness. 

(1)  Laterally? 

(2)  Dorsoventrally? 

(3)  Is  it  compressed  or  flattened? 

4.  Covering.     Naked,  ctenoid  scales,  or  cycloid  scales? 

5.  Dorsal  surface. 

(1)  Shape? 

(2)  Color? 

6.  Ventral  Surface. 

(1)  Shape? 

(2)  Color?     Why  this  difference  in  color? 

7.  The  Fins. 

(1)  Paired  Fins. 

(a)  Number? 

(b)  Use? 

(2)  Unpaired  Fins. 

(a)  Number? 

(b)  Use? 

(3)  Caudal  Fin.     Is  it  homocercaP  or  heterocercaP  ? 

8.  Nostrils. 

(1)  How  many  nostrils  has  the  sunfish? 

(2)  Do  they  open  into  the  mouth?     (Thrust  a  tipped  bris- 

tle or  a  flexible  probe  into  the  nostrils  and  see.) 

(3)  Use  of  the  nostrils  to  the  fish? 

1  See  Glossary,  Part  II,  "  Economic  Zoology." 


118  PISCES  (the  fish) 

9.  The  Eyes. 

(1)  How  many? 

(2)  Location? 

(3)  Parts  of  eye  present  as  compared  with  your  own? 

(4)  Parts  wanting  as  compared  with  your  own? 

(5)  Why  these  differences? 

10.  The  Ears. 

(1)  Do  you  find  any  evidences  of  external  ears? 

(2)  If  not,  why  not? 

(3)  Does  the  fish  hear?     State  your  proof. 

11.  The  Mouth. 

(1)  Size? 

(2)  Shape? 

(3)  Position? 

12.  The  Gill  Covers. 

(1)  Position? 

(2)  Use? 

13.  The  Gill  Openings. 

(1)  Position? 

(2)  Use? 

(3)  Number? 

14.  The  Scales. 

(1)  Number  of  rows  from  dorsal  to  ventral  edge? 

(2)  Number  in  one  row  from  side  of  head  to  caudal  fin? 

(3)  Estimate  the  total  number  of  scales  on  the  entire  fish. 

(4)  How  are  the  scales  fastened  into  the  skin? 

(5)  Are  the  scales  naked  or  covered  with  a  membrane? 

(6)  Is  the  pigment  in  spots  or  is  it  uniformly  distributed? 

Use  of  the  pigment? 

(7)  Are  the  scales  ctenoid  or  cycloid^  ? 

(8)  Examine  a  scale  with  hand  lens  or  microscope.     Sketch 

one  (enlarged  five  or  ten  times)  to  show  its  structure. 

15.  The  Lateral  Line. 

(1)  How  do  the  scales  of  the  lateral  line  differ  from  those 

of  other  parts  of  the  body? 

(2)  Use  of  lateral  line? 

16.  Sketch.     Turn  the  specimen  with  its  unmutilated  side 
toward  you  and  sketch  a  side  view  of  it,  locating  the  mouth, 

iSee  Part  II,  "Economic  Zoology,"  Figs.  173,  174. 


120  PISCES  (the  fish) 

nostrils,  ear,  eye,  gills,  fins,  lateral  line,  and  vent.  Number 
these  points  in  your  sketch  and  write  these  numbers  and  the 
names  below  it. 

17.  The  Skin.  With  sharp  scissors  cut  through  the  skin, 
and  with  forceps  peel  off  a  portion  of  it  so  as  to  expose  the  flesh 
or  muscles. 

(1)  Is  the  skin  thick  or  thin? 

(2)  How  is  it  fastened  to  the  flesh? 

(3)  Use? 

18.  The  Muscles. 

(1)  How  are  they  arranged  on  the  body? 

(2)  Estimate  what  proportion  of  the  whole  fish  is  muscle. 

(3)  Why  so  much  muscle? 

(4)  Are  there  any  nerves  in  the  muscles?     Use? 

(5)  Do  you  see  any  blood-vessels  in  the  muscles?     Use? 

19.  The  Respiratory  Organs. 

(1)  Raise  the  gill  cover  and  count  the  gills.     How  many? 

(2)  Color? 

(3)  How  are  the  gills  connected  with  the  mouth? 

(4)  How  many  gill  arches? 

(5)  How  many  gill  filaments  on  one  arch?     How  many  in 

all?     Use? 

(6)  What  does  the  fish  breathe?    How  does  it  obtain  it? 

(7)  How  does  the  water,  with  the  air  mechanically  mixed 

with  it,  pass  over  the  gifls;  from  the  mouth  back 
over  the  gills,  or  through  the  gill  openings  forward 
and  out  at  the  mouth? 


B.  Internal  Morphology 

1.  The  Digestive  Organs.  Cut  forward  from  the  vent  to 
the  gills  and  remove  the  muscles  from  one  side  of  the  body, 
exposing  the  internal  organs.  Is  the  body-cavity  large  or 
small? 

(1)  Peritoneum. 

(a)  Color? 

(b)  Surface  rough  or  smooth?     Why? 

(c)  Use? 


122  PISCES  (the  fish) 

(2)  The  Liver. 

(a)  Size? 

(b)  Shape? 

(c)  Position? 

(d)  Number  of  lobes? 

(e)  Gall-bladder. 

(1)  Size? 

(2)  Location? 

(3)  Use? 

(f)  Use? 

(3)  The  Mouth. 

(a)  Size?     Large  or  small? 

(b)  Shape? 

(c)  Teeth. 

(1)  Number? 

(2)  Arrangement? 

(3)  Position? 

(4)  Use? 

(d)  The  Tongue. 

(1)  Size? 

(2)  Shape? 

(3)  Relation  to  gills  and  other  parts? 

(4)  The  Gullet,  a  short,  wide  tube  leading  to  the  stomach. 

Thrust  a  probe  down  the  throat  of  the  fish  about  two 
inches. 

(a)  Are  there  any  teeth  in  the  gullet? 

(b)  Are  there  any  openings  to  or  from  the  gullet? 

(5)  The  Stomach. 

(a)  Position. 

(1)  Is  it  in  front  or  behind  the  gills? 

(2)  Position  with  reference  to  dorsal  fins? 

(3)  With  reference  to  pectoral  fins? 

(4)  To  ventral  fins? 

(b)  Size? 

(c)  Shape? 

(6)  The  Caeca  are  small,  worm-like  projections  at  the  junc- 

tion of  the  stomach  and  the  small  intestine.     They 
are  not  present  in  all  species  of  fishes, 
(a)  Size? 


124  PISCES  (the  fish) 

(b)  Shape? 

(c)  Color? 

(d)  Number? 

(e)  Use? 

(7)  The  Intestines. 

(a)  Are  they  straight  or  coiled? 

(b)  If  coiled,  unravel  them  and  compare  their  length 

with  that  of  the  whole  fish. 

(8)  The  Spleen. 

(a)  Location? 

(b)  Use? 

2.  The  Swimming  Bladder — dorsal  to  the  intestines.     Use? 

3.  The  Excretory  Organs — the  kidneys. 

(1)  Location? 

(2)  Use? 

4.  The  Circulatory  Organs.^ 

(1)  The  Heart.     (Note  its  pericardial  cavity.) 

(a)  Sinus  venosus.     Use? 

(b)  Auricle.     Use? 

(c)  Ventricle.     Use? 

(d)  Bulbous  arteriosus.     Use? 

(2)  The  Arteries.     Traced  to  what  organs?     Function? 

(3)  The  Veins.     Traced  to  what  organs?     Function? 

(4)  Use  of  pericardial  cavity? 

(5)  Make  a  diagram  showing  the  principal  parts  of  the  cir-. 

culatory  system. 

5.  The  Nervous  System. 

(1)  Dissect  away  the  muscles  and  bones  along  the  dorsal 

side,  and  expose  the  brain,^  spinal  cord,  and  main 
nerves. 

(2)  Special  Senses. 

(a)  How  many  senses  has  the  fish? 

(b)  Name  them. 

(c)  Name  those  of  man. 

^See  Fig.  160,  "Principles  of  Economic  Zoology." 
2  See  Fig.  161,  "  Principles  of  Economic  Zoology." 


126  PISCES  (the  fish) 


C.  Summary 


1.  Skeleton  (osseous  or  bony  system). 

(1)  Composition? 

(2)  Use. 

(a)  To  the  fish? 

(b)  To  man? 

(3)  Compared  with  man's  skeleton,  what  parts  do  you  find 

lacking?     Why  lacking? 

2.  Muscular  System. 

(1)  Uses  to  the  fish? 

(2)  Uses  to  man? 

3.  The  Skin. 

(1)  Uses  to  the  fish? 

(2)  Uses  to  man? 

4.  The  Digestive  System. 

(1)  Organs  in  man  are 

(2)  Organs  in  the  fish  are 

5.  The  Circulatory  System. 

(1)  Organs  in  man? 

(2)  Organs  in  the  fish? 

6.  The  Respiratory  System.     Compare  with  that  of  man. 

7.  The  Excretory  System.     Compare  with  that  of  man. 

8.  The  Nervous  System.     Compare  with  man's. 

9.  Special  Senses.     Compare  with  man's. 

10.  Why  does  the  fish  have  these  different  systems? 

11.  Why  is  the  fish  more  complex  than  the  Amoeba? 

12.  Why  is  the  fish  aquatic,  while  the  bird  is  aerial? 


STUDY   OF   CHORDATE    BRANCH    CHARACTERISTICS 

For  guidance  in  arriving  at  a  correct  answer,  ask  yourself 
this  question,  ''Does  this  answer  apply  to  all  chordates?"  If 
it  does  apply,  then  you  have  a  branch  characteristic. 

1.  The  Skeleton.     Of  what  does  the  endoskeleton  consist? 

2.  The  Body. 

(1)  Two  Body-cavities. 

(a)  The  upper  one,  or  the  neural  cavity,  contains  what 

system? 

(b)  The  lower  one,  or  the  hemal  cavity,  contains  what 

systems  of  organs? 

3.  The  Paired  Limbs.     How  many? 

4.  The  Notochord.  Is  it  present  in  the  larval  or  in  the  adult 
stage,  or  in  both?  If  it  is  not  present  in  the  adult  stage,  what  has 
become  of  it?     Its  use? 

5.  The  Gill-slits.  When  are  they  present,  in  the  larval  or  in 
the  adult  stage,  or  in  both?  If  they  are  not  present  in  the  adult 
stage,  what  has  become  of  them?     Their  use? 

6.  The  Nervous  System. 

(1)  Its  position  in  the  body? 

(2)  Consists  of  what  organs? 

7.  This  animal  belongs  to  Branch because  it  has  the 

following  characteristics  of  that  branch.     (Student  name  them.) 

STUDY  OF   CHORDATE   CLASS   CHARACTERISTICS 

1.  General  shape  of  the  body  of  this  animal? 

2.  Exoskeleton  or  External  Skeleton.  Scales,  feathers,  hair, 
fur,  none,  or  what? 

3.  Endoskeleton  or  Internal  Skeleton. 

(1)  Occipital  Condyles — one  or  two? 

(2)  Appendages. 

(a)  Called  what? 

(b)  Clawed  or  not  clawed? 

128 


130        STUDY    OF    CHORDATP]    BRANCH    CHARACTERISTICS 

(c)  Position  on  body? 

(d)  Number? 

(e)  Use? 

4.  Respiration,  by  means  of 

5.  Circulation. 

(1)  Single  or  double? 

(2)  Of  how  many  chambers  does  the  heart  consist?   Name 

them. 

(3)  Is  the  animal  poikilothermal  or  homoiothermal? 

6.  Digestion.     What  digestive  organs  found  in  this  animal 
are  peculiar  to  its  class? 

7.  This  animal  belongs  to  Class because  it  has 

the  following  characteristics  of   that  class.     (Student   name 
them.) 

8.  Consult  descriptive  zoologies  for  Classes. 


AMPHIBIA    (THE   FROG) 

(1)  Follow  suggested  plan  for  the  study  of  the  fish,  p.  112. 

(2)  Then  compare  the  fish  and  the  frog,  thus:  The  fish 

is  covered  with  scales.  The  frog's  skin  is  naked. 
Make  your  comparison  tell  what  both  animals  pos- 
sess. Don't  say  the  fish  is  covered  with  scales  while 
the  frog  is  not.  You  might  infer  that  the  frog  was 
covered  with  feathers  or  fur.  Make  twenty  compar- 
isons. 

(3)  Define  a  frog. 

(4)  Compare  your  definitions  of  fish  and  frog.     What  do 

you  find  they  have  in  common? 

STUDY   OF  THE  LIVE  FROG 
1.  Collecting. 

Wear  rubbers  or  rubber  boots,  and  walk  along  the  edge  of  a 
pond  or  stream  where  you  have  heard  the  croaking  of  frogs. 

(1)  Do  all  of  them  croak? 

(2)  Look  for  small  ones  in  the  grass  and  weeds  along  the 

bank.  Catch  them  by  sweeping  the  net  along  over 
the  vegetation,  and  carry  them  back  to  the  laboratory 
for  the  tank. 

(3)  Observations. 

(a)  What  does  the  frog  do  which  results  in  a  ''splash" 

into  the  water? 

(b)  How  do  they  strike  the  water? 

(c)  Do  they  stay  near  the  surface  all  the  time.     If  not, 

how  often  do  they  come  to  the  surface  and  for 
what  purpose? 

(d)  How  do  boys  get  a  chance  to  shoot  frogs? 

(e)  When  a  frog  floats  in  the  water,  how  much  of  it  can 

you  see? 

(f)  Color. 

(1)  How  does  the  color  of  its  upper  surface  compare 
with  that  of  its  surroundings?  Purpose  of  this 
color?     From  what  enemies  does  it  protect  it? 

132 


134  AMPHIBIA    (the    frog) 

(2)  What  color  is  the  frog  as  seen  by  animals  below  it? 
Purpose  of  this  color? 
(g)  Eggs.     Look  among  the  leaves  and  trash  in  the  edge 
of  the  water  for  the  egg  masses  or  spawn — lumps 
of  jelly-like  material  containing  the  eggs.     Take 
these  to  the  laboratorj^,  place  them  in  water  where 
there  is  no  danger  of  their  being  eaten,  and  watch 
their  development. 
(h)  Take  also  large  frog's,  which  may  be  captured  with 
the  hook  if  they  cannot  be  gotten  with  the  net. 
2.  Laboratory  Study. 

Place  a  number  of  frogs  in  a  tank  or  tub  covered  with  a  heavy 
wire  screen,  and  containing  an  inch  or  two  of  water. 

(1)  Try  various  kinds  of  food,  as  live  insects,  bits  of  meat, 

tadpoles,  bread,  grass,  etc. 

(a)  Which  kind  of  food  does  the  frog  prefer? 

(b)  How  does  it  take  its  food? 

(c)  Has  it  any  special  adaptation  for  catching  insects? 

If  so,  what? 

(2)  Observe  its  methods  of  locomotion. 

(a)  In  shallow  water  or  in  no  water. 

(b)  In  deep  water. 

(c)  Can  a  frog  walk? 

(d)  How  far  can  it  jump? 

(e)  What  adaptations  has  it  for  jumping? 

(3)  What  is  the  position  of  a  frog  at  rest? 

(4)  How  does  it  breathe? 

(5)  Notice  the  pulsations  of  the  ''lymph  hearts"  on  each 

side  near  the  end  of  the  backbone. 

(6)  What  means  of  defense  or  escape  has  the  frog? 

(a)  Molest  it  from  the  front.     What  does  it  do? 

(b)  Molest  it  from  behind.     What  does  it  do? 

(7)  Eyes. 

(a)  Are  there  eyelids?     If  so,  are  the  upper  and  lower 

lids  alike? 

(b)  Observe  and  describe  the  movements  of  the  eyelid. 

(8)  Voice. 

(a)  Do  the  different  species  have  different  voices  or  calls? 

(b)  Do  they  cry  out  in  fright?     In  pain? 


136  AMPHIBIA    (the    frog) 

(9)  Color. 

(a)  Keep  one  frog  in  the  light,  and  another  in  the  dark 

for  several  hours,  and  compare  their  colors. 

(b)  Experiment  and  find  out  if  changing  the  color  of  the 

surroundings  affects  the  color.     If  possible,  repeat 
this  experiment  with  a  little  tree  toad. 

(10)  Wrap  a  wet  towel  about  a  frog  and  pour  chloroform 

over  it  above  the  nostrils.  Now  spread  the  web  of 
the  foot  out  on  a  glass  slide  and  study  the  circula- 
tion under  the  low  power  of  the  microscope. 

Morphophysiologic  Study 
A.  External   Morphology 

1.  Size?     Length  in  inches? 

2.  Shape. 

(1)  Stout  or  slender? 

(2)  Body  divisions  present? 

3.  The  Head. 

(1)  Size.     Small,  medium,  large,  or  very  large? 

(2)  Shape? 

(3)  Movement  of  lower  jaw — vertical  or  horizontal? 

(4)  The  Eyes. 

(a)  Position  on  head? 

(b)  Shape? 

(c)  Size? 

(d)  Number  of  eyelids? 

(e)  Color  of  iris? 

(5)  The  Ears.     Back  of  the  eyes  find  the  tympanum. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Size?     Larger  or  smaller  than  the  eyes? 

(c)  Use? 

(d)  Pass  a  needle  through  the  tympanum  into  the  mouth 

and  trace  the  course  of  the  Eustachian  tube. 

(e)  Why  has  the  frog  no  external  ear? 

(6)  The  Nostrils. 

(a)  Where  located  on  the  head? 

(b)  Are  they  near  together  or  far  apart? 


138  AMPHIBIA    (the    frog) 

(c)  Do  they  open  into  the  mouth?     Probe  with  a  bristle 

and  see. 

(d)  Does  the  frog  breathe  through  the  nostrils,  or  does 

it  swallow  air,  or  does  it  do  both? 

(e)  Are  the  nostrils  organs  of  smell  only,  or  does  the  frog 

both  smell  with  and  breathe  through  its  nostrils? 

4.  The  Limbs. 

(1)  The  Anterior  Limbs. 

(a)  Number  of  digits? 

(b)  Webbed  or  free? 

(c)  Use? 

(2)  The  Posterior  Limbs.     Same  questions  as  for  anterior 

hmbs. 

(3)  Compare  the  anterior  with  the  posterior  limbs.     In 

what  respects   do  they  resemble  each   other?     In 
what  do  they  differ?     Why? 

(4)  Name  the  three  modes  of  locomotion  of  the  frog. 

How  is  each  performed?     When?     Why? 

5.  The  Skin. 

(1)  Smooth  or  rough? 

(2)  Why  so  loose  on  the  body? 

(3)  Remove  the  skin  from  the  body. 

(a)  Is  it  thick  or  thin? 

(b)  Hold  it  up  to  the  light.     What  do  you  observe  con- 
cerning its  color  or  color  spots?      Its  blood-vessels? 

6.  The  Muscles. 

(1)  Determine  the  origin,  insertion,  and  specific  use  of  the 

muscles. 

(2)  What  do  you  observe  concerning  the  muscles  of  the 

posterior  limbs?     What  is  the  reason  for  this? 

B.  Internal   Morphology 

1.  Digestive  Organs.  Pin  the  frog,  on  its  back  with  the 
limbs  fully  extended,  in  a  wax-bottomed  pan  or  on  a  soft  pine 
board.  Slit  open  the  body-cavity  from  the  posterior  end  of 
the  abdomen  to  the  breast  bone,  using  great  care  not  to  injure 
the  internal  organs.  On  each  side  of  the  posterior  end  of  this 
slit  make  another  short  one  at  right  angles  to  it.     Now  pin  back 


140  AMPHIBIA    (the    frog) 

the  flaps  of  the  body  walls,  exposing  the  viscera.  Insert  a  blow- 
pipe in  the  glottis  and  inflate  the  lungs,  then  tie  a  string  tightly 
around  the  trachea  to  keep  them  inflated.  Dissect  under 
water, 

(1)  The  Mouth. 

(a)  The  Teeth.     Open  the  mouth  wide.     Ascertain — 

(1)  The  number  of  the  teeth. 

(2)  Their  arrangement. 

(3)  Their  location. 

(b)  The  Tongue. 

(1)  Is  it  long  or  short? 

(2)  Shape? 

(3)  Where  attached?     Why? 

(4)  Is   the   free    end    entire,    slightly   nicked,    heart 

shaped,  or  deeply  notched? 

(5)  How  and  when  is  the  food  captured? 

(c)  The  Glottis.     Find  a  longitudinal  slit  in  the  back 

of  the  floor  of  the  mouth.  Into  what  does  it 
open? 

(d)  The  Pharynx.     The  posterior  portion  of  the  mouth 

may  be  considered  as  the  pharynx,  which  opens 
into  the  esophagus,  leading  to  the  stomach. 
Thrust  a  probe  down  the  esophagus  to  the 
stomach. 

(2)  The  Stomach. 

(a)  Identify  and  describe  it. 

(b)  Shape? 

(c)  Size? 

(d)  Color? 

(e)  Location? 

(3)  The  Liver  is  reddish  brown  and  lies  upon  the  stomach. 

(a)  How  many  lobes? 

(b)  Find  the  gall-bladder. 

(1)  Shape? 

(2)  Color? 

(3)  Use? 

(4)  The  Pancreas  is  in  the  first  fold  of  the  intestine. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Color? 


142  AMPHIBIA    (the    frog) 

(c)  Size? 

(d)  Use? 

(5)  The  Mesentery  is  a  thin  membrane  which  holds  the 

intestines  in  place. 

(a)  Does  it  contain  any  blood-vessels? 

(b)  From  what  source  do  they  come? 

(c)  To  what  do  they  lead? 

(6)  The  Spleen  is  a  small  round  red  body  in  the  mesentery. 

(a)  Find  and  identify  it. 

(b)  Use  in  man? 

(c)  Use  in  the  frog? 

(7)  The  Intestines  pass  from  the  stomach  to  the  vent. 

(a)  Carefully  cut  the  mesentery  and  unravel  the  intes- 

tines.    Are  they  coiled  or  straight? 

(b)  Are  they  of  the  same  diameter,  or  do  they  vary 

in  different  portions?     Where,  and  how  much? 

(c)  Length  as  compared  with  that  of  the  body? 

(8)  The  Cloaca.     This  is  the  enlargement  of  the  intestine 

just   before  it  reaches   the  vent.     The   intestines, 
kidneys,  and  reproductive  organs  open  into  it. 

(9)  Sketch  the  alimentary  canal  from  the  mouth  to  the 

vent,  properly  locating  and  naming  all  its  parts  or 
organs. 

2.  The  Respiratory  Organs. 

(1)  The  lungs.     How  much  of  the  body-cavity  do  the  lungs 

fill  when  inflated?     When  not  inflated? 

(2)  The  Trachea.     Find   the  trachea  and  trace  it  to  its 

branches,  the  bronchi,  which  lead  to  the  lungs. 

(3)  Sketch  the  respiratory  organs  and  name  all  parts. 

3.  The  Circulatory  Organs. 

(1)  The  Pericardium,  around  the  heart.     Its  use?     Care- 

fully cut  through  the  pericardium  and  find  the  heart. 

(2)  The  Heart. 

(a)  The  Ventricle.     The  pointed  posterior  portion  of  the 
heart  is  the  ventricle. 

(1)  Shape? 

(2)  Color? 

(3)  Size? 

(4)  Use? 


144  AMPHIBIA    (the    frog) 

(b)  The  Auricles.     At  the  anterior  and  dorsal  end  of  the 

heart,  find  the  two  auricles. 

(1)  Shape? 

(2)  Size? 

(3)  Color? 

(4)  Are  the  walls  thick  or  thin  as  compared  to  the  ven- 

tricle? 

(5)  Use? 

(c)  Conus  Arteriosus.     The  conus  arteriosus  originates 

from  the  right  side  of  the  base  of  the  ventricle, 
soon  divides  into  two  branches.  Each  divides 
into  three,  the  posterior  uniting  in  the  dorsal  aorta. 

(d)  Dorsal  Aorta.     Trace  the  principal  branches. 

(1)  What  organs  or  parts  of  the  body  do  they  supply? 

(2)  Notice  that  these  arteries  are  firm,  elastic  blood- 

vessels. 

(e)  Veins.     The  flabby  blood-vessels  are  veins.     As  you 

traced  the  arteries  from  the  heart,  now  trace  the 
flabby  veins  to  the  heart. 

(1)  From  what  organs  or  parts  of  the  body  do  they 

originate? 

(2)  Where  do  they  unite? 

(3)  Where  do  they  empty  into  the  heart? 

(f)  Sketch  or  make  diagram  of  the  circulatory  organs, 

showing  pericardium,  ventricle,  auricles,  conus 
arteriosus,  and  the  principal  arteries  and  veins. 
Indicate  upon  each  artery  the  organ  supplied,  and 
upon  each  vein  the  organ  from  which  the  vein 
comes. 
4.  Reproductive  and  Excretory  Organs. 

(1)  The  Reproductive  Organs.    If  the  specimen  is  a  female, 

the  reproductive  organs  will  appear  as  long  coiled 
tubes,  filled  with  eggs  in  the  breeding  season.  If  a 
male,  the  reproductive  organs  will  appear  as  a  pair 
of  yellowish  bodies  just  below  the  kidneys.  Do 
not  confuse  the  reproductive  organs  with  the  slender 
branched  fatty  bodies  which  are  generally  present. 

(2)  The   Excretory   Organs.     The   kidneys   are   two   flat 

bodies  along  the  back-bone. 


146  AMPHIBIA    (the    frog) 

(a)  Color? 

(b)  Length? 

(c)  Trace  the  ureter  from  each  kidney  to  the  cloaca. 

(d)  Sketch  the  kidneys,  the  ureters,  and  the  openings 

into  the  cloaca. 
5.  The  Endoskeleton.     Carefully  dissect  off  all  the  flesh  and 
viscera  and  have  the  bony  skeleton  entire  and  uninjured. 

(1)  The  Skull. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Size? 

(c)  How  many  bones  in  the  lower  jaw? 

(d)  How  many  occipital  condyles,  one  or  two? 

(2)  The  Spinal  Column. 

(a)  Number  of  vertebrae? 

(b)  What  vertebral  processes  are  longest?     Why? 

(c)  Why  has  the  frog  no  ribs?     How  does  it  breathe 

without  either  ribs  or  diaphragm? 

(d)  Urostyle,  the  long  bone  at  the  posterior  end  of  the 

spinal  column. 

(1)  Shape? 

(2)  Is  it  segmented? 

(3)  Use? 

(3)  Bones  of  the  Anterior  Limbs.     In  man  they  are  1  hu- 

merus, 1  radius,  1  ulna,  8  carpals,  5  metacarpals,  and 
14  phalanges,  or  30  bones  in  all.  Compare  the  bones 
of  the  frog's  anterior  limb  with  those  of  man. 

(a)  What  ones  are  lacking,  if  any? 

(b)  How  many  in  the  entire  limb? 

(c)  Any  peculiarity  of  any  bone? 

(4)  Bones  of  the  Posterior  Limbs. 

(a)  Name  in  order  the  bones  in  man's  leg. 

(b)  Name  those  in  the  frog's  leg. 

(c)  How  do  they  agree? 

(d)  How  do  they  differ? 

(e)  How  do  the  bones  of  the  posterior  limb  differ  from 
those  of  the  anterior  limb  in  this  specimen?     Why? 

(5)  The  Pectoral  or  Shoulder  Girdle. 

(a)  Of  how  many  parts  does  it  consist? 

(b)  Is  it  entirely  of  bone  or  partly  of  cartilage? 


148  AMPHIBIA    (the    frog) 

(c)  How  many  bones  enter  into  the  articulation  at  the 
shoulder-joint? 
(6)  The  Pelvic  Girdle.     Notice  the  two  long  bones  (iha) 
one  on  either  side  of  the  urostjde. 

(a)  To  what  is  the  anterior  end  attached? 

(b)  What  makes  the  "hump"  on  the  frog's  back?     Of 

what  use  is  this  arrangement? 

(c)  At  the  posterior  end  of  the  urostyle  notice  a  wedge 

or  disk-shaped  body,  partly  bone  and  partly 
cartilage.  This  disk  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
posterior  extremities  of  the  ilia  and  the  fusing 
together  of  the  two  pubes  and  the  two  ischia. 

(d)  For  what  bones  do  they  form  sockets  (acetabula)? 

Are  these  acetabula  far  apart  or  very  close  to- 
gether?    Why? 

(e)  How  close  are  the  articulations  of  the  thigh  bone  to 

the  posterior  end  of  the  body?     Why? 

(f)  Mount  this  skeleton  on  a  heavy  card  or  a  nicely 

planed  pine  board  and  save  it  for  further  refer- 
ence in  the  systematic  studies. 
6.  The  Nervous  System.  If  it  is  desired  to  work  out  the 
nervous  system,  chloroform  the  specimen,  slit  open  the  abdomen 
and  the  skin  along  the  dorsal  side,  and  put  it  into  70  per  cent, 
alcohol,  or  2  to  4  per  cent,  formalin  for  about  a  week,  then  dis- 
sect out  the  nervous  system. 

(1)  Carefully   remove   the   muscles   and   bones   from   the 

dorsal  surface  of  the  cranium  and  backbone  with 
knife,  bone-forceps,  or  strong  forceps,  bit  by  bit, 
until  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  are  exposed,  but  left 
intact.  Man's  brain  has  three  coverings:  dura 
mater,  pia  mater,  and  arachnoid.  Can  you  identif}^ 
these  coverings  on  the  frog's  brain  and  spinal  cord? 

(2)  The  Brain.i 

(a)  The  Cerebrum.     Identify  it  with  its  two  hemispheres 
between  the  eves. 

(1)  Shape? 

(2)  Size? 

(3)  Is  it  convoluted  or  smooth? 

(4)  Function? 

^See  Fig.  185,  "Principles  of  Economic  Zoology." 


150  AMPHIBIA    (the    frog) 

(b)  The  Optic  Lobes  lie  just  posterior  to  the  cerebrum. 

(1)  Shape? 

(2)  Size? 

(3)  Function? 

(c)  The  Cerebellum  is  posterior  to  the  optic  lobes. 

(1)  Shape? 

(2)  Size? 

(3)  Is  it  convoluted,  smooth,  or  ridged? 

(4)  Use? 

(d)  The  Medulla  Oblongata  lies  posterior  to  the  cere- 

bellum. It  is  widest  anteriorly  and  gradually 
merges  into  the  spinal  cord. 

(e)  For  ventral  view  of  the  brain  consult  some  good 

figure  and  identify  the  cerebral  nerves.  In  a  man 
there  are  twelve  pairs.  How  many  pairs  in  the 
frog?  Name  the  pairs  of  cranial  nerves  in  man 
and  state  their  destination  and  use.  Same  for 
those  of  the  frog. 

(3)  The  Spinal  Cord. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Length? 

(4)  The  Spinal  Nerves.     Place  the  frog  ventral  side  up 

and  carefully  remove  the  viscera.  In  man  there  are 
thirty-one  pairs  of  spinal  nerves.  How  many  can 
you  identify  coming  from  the  spinal  cord  in  the  frog? 

(a)  Are  all  these  nerves  of  the  same  size  when  they  leave 

the  cord? 

(b)  With  what  does  the  second  pair  (counting  from  the 

anterior  end  of  the  cord)  unite? 

(1)  What  does  this  union  then  form? 

(2)  What  muscles  does  it  supply? 

(c)  What  four  other  spinal  nerves  unite? 

(1)  Do  they  subdivide? 

(2)  Trace  them  down  to  their  union  in  one  large  nerve, 

the  sciatic.     What  muscles  does  it  supply? 

(5)  The    Sympathetic    Nerves.     A    small   knotted   nerve 

cord  may  be  found  along  the  side  of  the  dorsal  aorta. 

(a)  Trace  each  nerve. 

(b)  How  many  knots  or  ganglia  do  you  find? 

(c)  Use  of  the  sympathetic  nervous  system? 


REPTILIA    (THE   TURTLE) 

(1)  Follow  plan  of  study  for  the  fish,  p.  112. 

(2)  Compare  the  turtle  and  the  frog. 

(3)  How  do  you  account  for  the  turtle's  carapace  and  plas- 
tron? 

(4)  How  do  you  account  for  the  absence  of  limbs  in  the  snake? 
Did  they  ever  have  limbs?  Were  snakes  larger  formerly  than 
now?     See  your  Geology  on  reptiles. 

(5)  How  do  you  account  for  the  classification  of  snakes, 
turtles,  aUigators,  and  crocodiles  as  Reptilia? 

STUDY  OF  THE  LIVE  TURTLE 

1.  Field  Study. 

Protected  by  rubbers  or  rubber  boots,  go  very  cautiously 
along  the  banks  of  a  secluded  pond  or  stream. 

(1)  Look  upon  fallen  tree  trunks  or  stumps  for  turtles 

basking  in  the  sunshine. 

(a)  What  do  they  do   if   they  become  aware  of  your 

presence? 

(b)  How  do  they  become  aware  of  it? 

(c)  How  do  they  get  back  into  the  water? 

(d)  Wait  quietly  to  see  if  they  will  return. 

(2)  Fish  for  turtles  with  a  hook  and  stout  line.      For  bait 

use  a  short  piece  of  fresh  meat. 

(3)  When  one  is  caught,  put  it  in  the  mud  outside  of  the 

stream  and  watch  it. 

(a)  If  it  walks  away,  does  it  carry  its  body  above  the 

ground  or  does  it  creep  along  with  its  body  dragging 
on  the  ground? 

(b)  What  does  it  do  with  the  head  and  neck  when  walk- 

ing? 

152 


154  REPTILIA    (the    turtle) 

(c)  Follow  it  very  cautiousl}^  not  losing  sight  of  it  until 

it  stops. 

(d)  How  does  it  conceal  itself  in  the  mud? 

(e)  Is  its  color  of  use  to  it  in  its  natural  environment? 

If  so,  of  what  use? 
2.  Laboratory  Study. 
Place  the  turtle  in  the  tank  with  about  an  inch  of  water. 

(1)  Watch  it,  to  see  how  it  breathes. 

(2)  Experiment  with  various  kinds  of  foods,  leaving  them 

overnight  in  the  tank.     What  kind  or  kinds  does  the 
turtle  eat? 

(3)  Leave  it  several  days  without  food.     Then  offer  it 

fresh  meat. 

(a)  How  does  it  take  its  food? 

(b)  Does  it  chew  its  food?     Does  it  swallow  it  whole? 

(c)  Of  what  use  is  its  beak? 

(4)  Neck. 

(a)  Why  is  the  neck  so  long? 

(b)  Turn  it  over  on  its  back.     How  does  it  turn  over? 

(5)  Locomotion. 

(a)  Put  the  turtle  on  the  ground  or  floor.      Does  it  lift 

or  drag  the  body  when  walking? 

(b)  Put  it  in  deep  water. 

(1)  Watch  it  swim.     Describe. 

(2)  What  adaptations  has  it  for  swimming? 

(3)  Can  it  dive? 

(6)  Protection. 

(a)  Can  it  withdraw  its  head  and  limbs  into  the  shell? 

(b)  What  does  it  do  with  its  tail? 

(c)  Compare  with  a  box-turtle,  if  you  can  get  one. 

(7)  Has  it  any  means  of  defense  aside  from  its  shell?     If 

so,  what? 

(8)  Eyelids. 

(a)  How  many? 

(b)  Movements? 

(9)  Voice. 

(a)  Does  it  make  say  sound?     If  so,  how? 

(b)  For  what  purpose? 


156  REPTILIA    (the    turtle) 

Morphophysiologic  Study 
A.  External   Morphology 

1.  Size.     With  the  animal  lying  on  its  back  and  extended, 
what  is  the  length  from  the  tip  of  its  nose  to  the  end  of  its  tail? 

2.  Shape  of  the  Body. 

(1)  Stout  or  slender? 

(2)  Body  divisions  present? 

3.  The  Head. 

(1)  Size.     Small,  medium,  large,  or  very  large? 

(2)  Shape? 

(3)  Measurements. 

(a)  Length? 

(b)  Width? 

(c)  Depth? 

(4)  Lower  Jaw  Movement.     Vertical  or  horizontal? 

(5)  Color? 

(6)  Eyes. 

(a)  Position  on  head? 

(b)  Shape? 

(c)  Number  of  eyelids? 

(d)  Color  of  iris? 

(7)  Ears. 

(a)  Can  the  turtle  hear? 

(b)  Is  there  any  external  evidence  of  ears? 

(c)  Why  is  this  so? 

(8)  Nostrils. 

(a)  Where  are  they  located  on  the  head? 

(b)  Are  they  near  together  or  far  apart? 

4.  The  Neck. 

(1)  Shape? 

(2)  Length? 

(3)  Color? 

(4)  PecuHarity? 

5.  The  Limbs. 

(1)  The  Anterior  Limbs. 

(a)  Number  of  digits? 

(b)  Are  they  webbed  or  free? 

(c)  Use? 


158  REPTILIA    (the    turtle) 

(2)  The  Posterior  Limbs. 

(a)  Number  of  digits? 

(b)  Are  they  webbed  or  free? 

(c)  Use? 

(3)  Compare  the  anterior  with  the  posterior  Hmbs. 

(a)  In  what  respects  are  they  ahke? 

(b)  In  what  respects  do  they  differ? 

(c)  Give    reasons   for   these   resemblances   and   differ- 

ences. 

6.  The  Skin. 

(1)  Smooth  or  rough? 

(2)  Thick  or  thin? 

(3)  Where  thickest?     Where  thinnest?     AVhy? 

(4)  Loose,  hke  the  frog's  skin,  or  tight? 

(5)  Color?        " 

7.  The  Shell.     The  upper  portion  is  the  carapace,  the  lower 
portion  is  the  plastron. 

(1)  The  Carapace. 

(a)  Sketch  it — one-half  natural  size. 

(b)  How    many    marginal    epidermal    plates?     Letter 

each  of  these  in  your  sketch  (a). 

(c)  How  many  dorsal  plates?     Letter  each  (b). 

(d)  How  many  costal  plates  (between  marginal  and  dor- 

sal)?    Letter  (c). 

(e)  Now  write  a  brief  description  of  these  epidermal 

plates,  stating  the  total  number,  and  the  shape, 
size,  color,  use,  and  arrangement  of  the  different 
kinds. 

(2)  The  Plastron. 

(a)  Sketch  it. 

(b)  Of  how  many  epidermal  plates  is  it  composed? 

(c)  What  is  their  size,  shape,  color,  and  arrangement? 

(d)  Compare  plastron  with  carapace  as  to  shape,  size, 

and  relation  to  other  parts. 

B.  Internal    Morphology 
1.  Preliminary  Work. 

(1)  Killing  the  turtle.     Take  a  firm  hold  of  its  head  and 
open  its  mouth.     Insert  a  blow-pipe  into  the  glottis 


160  REPTILIA    (the    turtle) 

at  the  base  of  the  tongue.  Put  about  a  tablespoon- 
ful  of  chloroform  into  the  blowpipe  and  blow  it  into 
the  lungs.  Now  tie  a  string  tightly  around  the  neck 
to  keep  the  air  out  of  the  trachea,  and  let  the  turtle 
lie  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes.  Another  method  of 
killing  preferred  by  some  is  simply  to  place  the  tur- 
tle on  its  back  in  the  ^'killing  box."  Wrap  a  cloth 
well  saturated  with  chloroform  about  its  head.  Close 
the  lid  tightly  and  allow  the  turtle  to  remain  about 
twenty  minutes,  then  tie  a  string  very  tightly  around 
its  neck. 

(2)  Slit  open  the  skin  of  the  ventral  side  of  the  neck  and 

expose  the  trachea,  esophagus,  and  the  strong  mus- 
cles of  the  neck. 

(3)  Remove  the  plastron  by  cutting  through  the  skin  along 

its  margin  and  sawing  or  cutting  through  the  plas- 
tron where  it  joins  the  carapace.  With  a  sharp  scal- 
pel dissect  away  the  muscles  from  the  inner  surface 
of  the  plastron,  cutting  very  close  to  it,  so  as  to  leave 
the  internal  organs  uninjured  and  in  place. 

(4)  Cut    away     the     pericardium,    the    semitransparent 

membrane  covering  the  heart,  taking  care  not  to  cut 
the  blood-vessels.  Observe  the  beating  of  the  heart. 
What  is  the  order  of  contraction — auricles  and  ven- 
tricle— or  the  reverse? 

(5)  With  a  sharp  scalpel   cut  the  peritoneum  along  the 

middle  line,  beginning  just  posterior  to  the  heart  and 
continuing  posteriorly.  In  doing  this,  place  the 
point  of  the  scalpel  edge  up  under  the  membrane  and 
cut  outward,  taking  great  care  not  to  injure  amj  under- 
lying organs. 

(6)  Cut  the  string  about  the  neck.     Insert  a  blowpipe  in 

the  glottis  and  inflate  the  lungs,  and  quickly  tie  a 
string  tightly  around  the  trachea  to  keep  them  in- 
flated. Now  you  are  ready  to  begin  the  study  of 
the  internal  organs. 

(7)  First  note  their  position  in  the  body-cavity. 

(a)  Where  is  the  heart  situated  with  reference  to  the  di- 
gestive organs? 


162  REPTILIA    (the    turtle) 

(b)  What  is  the  position  of  the  lungs  with  reference  to  the 

heart  and  stomach? 

(c)  Note  the  position  of  the  large  liver  and  make  a  study 

of  it  in  its  place. 

(1)  Color? 

(2)  Location? 

(3)  Number  of  lobes? 

(4)  Use? 

(5)  Identify  and  locate  the  gall-bladder?     Use? 

(6)  Trace  the  bile-ducts  to  the  duodenum  or  anterior 

loop  of  the  intestine. 
2.  The  Circulatory  System. 

(1)  The  Heart. 

(a)  Size? 

(b)  Shape? 

(c)  Parts  present? 

(d)  Pericardium.     Use? 

(e)  Ventricle.     The   pointed   posterior   portion   of   the 

heart  is  the  ventricle. 

(1)  Shape? 

(2)  Color? 

(3)  Size? 

(4)  Use? 

(f)  The  Auricles.     At  the  anterior  and  dorsal  end  of  the 

heart  find  the  two  auricles. 

(1)  Are  their  walls  thick  or  thin  as  compared  with 

those  of  the  ventricle? 

(2)  Shape? 

(3)  Size? 

(4)  Color? 

(5)  Use? 

(2)  Arteries. 

(a)  Trace    the    two    aortse    from    the    heart    to    their 

union. 

(b)  Trace  arteries  to  the  stomach  and  to  other  principal 

organs. 

(3)  The  Veins.     The  flabby  blood-vessels  are  veins.     As 

you  traced  the  arteries  from  the  heart,  now  trace  the 
veins  to  the  heart. 


164  REPTILIA    (the    turtle) 

(a)  From  what  organs  or  parts  of  the  body  do  they 

originate? 

(b)  Where  do  they  unite? 

(c)  Where  do  they  empt}'  into  the  heart? 

(4)  Make  a  diagram  of  the  circulatory  organs,  showing  the 

pericardium,     ventricles,     auricles,     and     principal 
arteries  and  veins.     Indicate  upon  each  artery  the 
organ  supplied,  and  upon  each  vein  the  organ  from 
which  it  comes. 
3.  The  Digestive  System. 

(1)  The  Mouth. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Size? 

(c)  Position,  terminal  or  ventral? 

(d)  How  wide  does  the  mouth  of  your  specimen  open? 

(1)  How  does  it  open  so  wide? 

(2)  When? 

(3)  Why? 

(2)  The  Teeth. 

What  does  the  turtle  have  instead  of  teeth?     Why? 

(3)  The  Tongue. 

(a)  Is  it  long  or  short? 

(b)  Shape? 

(c)  Where  attached? 

(d)  Rough  or  smooth? 

(e)  Use? 

(1)  The  Mandibles,  or  Jaws. 

(a)  Size  and  strength? 

(b)  Are  the  edges  smooth  or  serrated? 

(c)  Do  they  overlap,  or  do  they  close  against  each  other? 

Why? 

(d)  Use  of  the  mandibles? 

(5)  The  Esophagus  or  Gullet. 

(a)  Is  it  flabby  and  collapsed,  or  a  rigid  and  open  tube 

like  the  trachea? 

(b)  Of  what  kind  of  tissue  is  it  composed? 

(c)  Thrust  a  probe  down  the  gullet  and  ascertain  its 

diameter. 

(d)  Ascertain  its  length  to  the  stomach.     Why  so  long? 


166  REPTILIA    (the    turtle) 

(6)  The  Stomach.     Locate  and  describe,  giving  its  shape, 

size,  and  color. 

(7)  The  Liver  has  been  studied.     (See  (7)  (c),  p.  162.) 

(8)  The  Pancreas  is  in  the  first  fold  of  the  intestine. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Color? 

(c)  Size? 

(d)  Use? 

(9)  The  Mesentery  is  a  thin  membrane  which  suspends  the 

intestines. 

(a)  Does  it  contain  any  blood-vessels? 

(b)  From  what  source  do  they  come? 

(c)  To  what  do  they  lead? 

(10)  The  Spleen  is  a  small  dark  red  body  in  the  mesentery. 

(a)  Locate  it. 

(b)  Use? 

(11)  The  Intestines  pass  from  the  stomach  to  the  vent. 

(a)  Carefully  cut  the  mesentery  and  unravel  them.     Are 

they  coiled  or  straight? 

(b)  Do  they  vary  in  diameter  in  different  places?     If  so, 

where,  and  how  much? 

(c)  Length  of  turtle's  intestines  as  compared  with  the 

length  of  its  body? 

(12)  The  Cloaca.     This  is  the  enlargement  of  the  intestine 

just  before  it  reaches  the  vent.     The  intestines,  kid- 
neys, and  reproductive  organs  open  into  it. 

(13)  Sketch  the  entire  alimentary  canal  from  the  mouth 

to  the  vent,  placing  the  various  organs  in  their  proper 
order  and  naming  each  of  them. 
4.  The  Respiratory  Sj^stem. 

(1)  The  Nostrils. 

(a)  Do  they  open  into  the  mouth?     Probe  with  a  bristle 

and  see. 

(b)  Does  the  turtle  l)reathe  through  its  nostrils  only,  or 

does  it  swallow  air  also? 

(c)  Does  the  turtle  both  breathe  through  and  smell 

with  its  nostrils? 

(2)  The   Glottis.     Find  an  opening  in  the  base  of  the 

tongue  leading  to  the  trachea. 


168  REPTILIA    (the    turtle) 

(3)  The  Trachea.     Trace  it  to  its  branches,  the  bronchi, 

which  lead  to  the  lungs. 

(a)  Is  it  long  or  short?     Why? 

(b)  Is  it  an  open  rigid  tube  or  a  flabby  collapsed  one? 

Why? 

(c)  Of  what  kind  or  kinds  of  tissue  is  it  composed? 

(4)  The  Lungs. 

(a)  How  much  of  the  body-cavity  do  they  fill  when  in- 

flated? 

(b)  Estimate    approximately    their    capacity    in    cubic 

inches. 

(5)  Make  a  diagram  of  the  respiratory  organs  and  name 

each. 

5.  The  Reproductive  and  Excretory  Systems. 

(1)  The  Reproductive  Organs. 

(a)  If  the  specimen  is  a  female,  the  reproductive  organs 

will  appear  as  long  coiled  tubes  filled  with  eggs 
in  the  breeding  season. 

(b)  If  a  male,  the  reproductive  organs  will  appear  as  a 

pair  of  yellowish  bodies  just  below  the  kidneys. 
Do  not  confuse  the  reproductive  organs  with  the 
slender  branched  fatt}^  bodies  generally  present. 

(2)  The  Kidneys  are  two  flat  bodies  along  the  backbone. 

(a)  Color? 

(b)  Length? 

(c)  Trace  the  ureter  from  each  kidney  to  the  cloaca. 

(d)  Sketch  the  kidneys,  ureters,  and  openings  into  the 

cloaca. 

6.  The  Nervous  System.     Follow  the  directions  given  for  the 
nervous  system  of  the  frog. 

How  do  the  parts  of  the  turtle's  brain  compare  with  the 
frog's  as  to  size,  shape,  and  appearance? 

7.  The  Muscular  System. 

(1)  Find  the  origin  and  insertion  of  the  muscles  that  pro- 

tract and  retract  the  neck.     What  wonderful  adap- 
tations for  a  specific  purpose  do  you  discover? 

(2)  Dissect  off  all  the  muscles  from  the  bones,   leaving 

enough  ligaments  to  hold  the  bones  in  their  proper 
places. 


170  REPTILIA    (the    turtle) 

8.  The  Skeleton,  or  Osseous  System. 

(1)  The  Head.     Sketch  it,  naming  the  principal  bones  in  it. 

(2)  The  Neck. 

(a)  Number  of  vertebrae? 

(b)  Shape  of  each? 

(c)  Use? 

(3)  The  Pectoral  Girdle.     Sketch  the  girdle,  locating  and 

naming  the  coracoid,  precoracoid,  scapula,  and  a 
ligament  connecting  the  distal  portions  of  the  cora- 
coid and  the  precoracoid.  This  ligament  represents 
the  epicoracoid  of  some  reptiles. 

(4)  The  Front  Limb. 

(a)  Sketch,  showing  humerus,  radius,  ulna,  the  carpal 

and  metacarpal  bones,   the  phalanges,   and  the 
claws. 

(b)  Why  is  the  front  limb  so  stout  and  paddle-like? 

(5)  The  Vertebral  Column,  from  head  to  tail. 

(a)  Of  what  does  it  consist? 

(b)  Number  of  vertebrae? 

(c)  Its-  special  modifications? 

(6)  The  Pelvic  Girdle.     Sketch  the  girdle,  locating  and 

naming  the  ilium,  ischium,  and  the  pubes. 

(7)  The  Hind  Limb. 

(a)  Sketch,  locating  and  naming  all  the  bones  of  the  leg 

and  foot,  from  the  femur  to  the  claws. 

(b)  Use  of  web? 

(c)  Use  of  long  claws? 

(d)  Compare  the  hind  limb  with  the  front  limb  as  to 

shape,  size,  length,  and  use. 

(8)  The  Tail. 

(a)  Number  of  vertebrae  in  the  turtle's  tail? 

(b)  Use  to  the  turtle? 

(c)  Its  pecuharity? 

(9)  Remove  the  epidermal  plates  from  one  half  of  the  shell. 

(a)  Sketch  the  bony  plates  from  the  dorsal  side  of  the 

carapace. 

(b)  Sketch  the  bony  plates  from  the  ventral  side  of  the 

carapace. 

(c)  How  many  do  you  find? 


172  REPTILIA    (the    turtle) 

(d)  How  many  ribs? 

(e)  How  many  ribs  and  bony  plates  united?     Why? 

(f)  How  do  the  bony  plates  compare  with  the  epidermal 

plates  in  size,  shape,  number,  and  arrangement? 

(g)  Of  what  does  the  carapace  consist? 
(h)  Use  of  this  complicated  structure? 
(i)    The  Plastron. 

(1)  Sketch  it. 

(2)  How  many  epidermal  plates?     Color? 

(3)  How  many  bony  plates? 

(4)  Compare  the  plastron  with  the  carapace  as  to 

shape,  size,  and  relation  to  other  parts. 


AVES    (THE   BIRD) 

Follow  the  plan  for  Pisces,  p.  112. 
Compare  birds  and  reptiles. 

How  do  you  account  for  the  presence  of  feathers  on  the  bird? 
For  the  bird's  ancestors,  see  your  geology,  Archseopteryx. 
See  Chapman's  ''Bird    Life"  for  a  plan  for    spring  or  fall 
study  of  birds. 

STUDY   OF  LIVE  BIRDS 

A.  General   Study 

1.  Winter  Birds. 

(1)  Make  a  list  of  all  the  birds  which  remain  in  your 

locaUty  through  the  winter. 

(2)  Are  they  more  warmly  clad  than  the  birds  which  go 

south  in  winter? 

(3)  Why  do  they  not  migrate? 

(4)  What  is  their  food?     Can  they  get  a  comfortable  sup- 

ply in  winter? 

2.  Migration. 

(1)  What  birds  are  the  first  to  migrate? 

(2)  What  ones  are  the  last  to  go? 

(3)  What  ones  are  the  first  to  come  back  in  the  spring? 

DonH  guess.  Keep  a  record,  giving  the  date  for  the 
first  time  you  see  each  bird  as  it  returns  in  the  spring. 
Make  several  trips  to  the  woods  and  streams  to  in- 
crease the  list. 

(4)  Which  birds  are  gregarious? 

(5)  Which  come  in  pairs? 

(6)  Can  you  give  any  evidence  from  your  own  observation 

of  any  birds  returning  to  the  same  place  to  nest  from 
year  to  year? 

3.  Movements  on  the  Ground. 

(1)  Make  a  list  of  the  birds  that  hop. 

(2)  Make  a  list  of  those  that  walk. 

174 


176  AVES  (the  bird) 

4.  Voice. 

(1)  Make  a  list  of  those  that  sing. 

(2)  Do  you  notice  different  calls  or  tones  by  the  same 

bird? 

(a)  Are  they  for  different  purposes? 

(b)  What  emotions  or  information  do  birds  express  by 

voice? 

(3)  Give  some  of  the  names  applied  to  the  calls  of  various 

birds. 

5.  Nesting  Habits. 

(1)  Make  a  list  of  birds  which  build  their  nests  upon  the 

ground. 

(2)  Of  those  that  build  in  trees. 

(3)  What  general  truth  do  you  observe  concerning  the 

colors  of  birds  which  stay  most  of  the  time  on  the 
ground?     Is  this  true  of  their  color  ventrally? 

B.  Special   Study 
Select  one  or  two  birds  which  you  have  an  opportunity  to 
watch  closely,  and  report  upon  the  following  points: 

1.  Nesting  Habits. 

(1)  Which  builds  the  nest,  the  male  or  the  female?     Or  do 

both? 

(2)  Does  the  male  feed  his  mate  or  does  he  watch  the  nest 

while  she  gets  her  food? 

2.  Food. 

(1)  What  is  their  food? 

(2)  Which  feeds  the  young?     What  does  it  feed  them? 

(3)  Judging  from  this  food,  are  they  of  use  or  harm  to  the 

farmer  and  fruit-grower? 

(4)  When  (what  time  of  day  or  night)  do  they  feed? 

(5)  How  do  they  secure  their  food? 

(6)  What  adaptations  for  securing  food  have  they? 

(7)  Name  some  adaptations  for  securing  food  which  you 

have  noticed  in  other  birds. 

(8)  Does  this  bird  ever  store  its  food?     If  so,  how  and 

where?     If  not,  do  you  know  of  any  bird  which  does? 

(9)  How  does  this  bird  drink?     Do  all  birds  drink  that  way? 

(Watch  the  pigeon  drink.) 


178  AVES  (the  bird) 

3.  The  Young. 

(1)  How  does  this  pair  of  birds  defend  its  young? 

(2)  Is  there  any  recognition  of  the  parent  by  the  young? 

If  so,  by  what  means? 

Morphophysiologic  Study 

Note. — If  the  teacher  can  supply  the  feathers,  it  will  be  well 
to  take  the  study  of  a  "contour"  feather,  and  a  "down"  feather, 
before  killing  the  bird.  A  common  pigeon  makes  an  excellent 
study,  but  an  English  sparrow  may  be  used. 

Kill  the  bird  by  chloroforming  it  in  the  "killing  can"  for  ten 
minutes.  Then  slit  the  skin  of  the  neck  and  tie  a  string  tightly 
around  the  trachea  close  to  the  head. 

One  bird  will  be  needed  for  the  study  of  muscles,  viscera,  and 
nervous  system,  and  another  for  the  skeleton.  If  it  is  desired 
to  mount  the  skeleton  and  material  is  scarce,  two  students  may 
work  together  after  the  internal  morphology  is  reached,  so  that 
all  the  material  needed  will  be  one  bird  for  each  student. 

If  the  student  does  not  get  ready  the  first  day  for  the  in- 
ternal morphology,  insert  a  blowpipe  in  the  bird's  trachea  and 
inflate  the  lungs  (see  B,  1  and  2),  or  they  may  become  fixed  so 
that  they  cannot  be  inflated. 

Place  specimen  in  "preserving  fluid"  after  class  each  day. 

A.  External   Morphology 

1.  Size. 

(1)  What  is  the  length  from  the  tip  of  the  bill  to  the  end 

of  the  tail? 

(2)  Weight  of  the  bird  with  the  feathers  on? 

2.  Shape  of  its  body?     Why  such  a  shape? 

3.  Body  Divisions.  Head,  neck,  body,  tail.  Length  of 
each? 

4.  The  Head. 

(1)  Size.    Small,  medium,  or  large,  compared  with  the  body? 

(2)  Shape?     Why  such  a  shape? 

(3)  Covering  of  the  head. 

(a)  Parts  feathered? 

(b)  Parts  naked? 


180  AVES  (the  bird) 

(4)  Range  of  motion  of  the  head? 

(5)  Eyes. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Size? 

(c)  Position  on  the  head?     Why  so  placed? 

(d)  EyeUds.    Are  there  two  or  three  to  each  eye?    Raise 

the  upper  Hd  and  look  in  the  interior  angle  for  the 
nictitating  membrane.     How  does  a  bird  wink? 

(6)  Ears. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Size? 

(c)  Position  on  the  head? 

(d)  How  protected? 

(7)  Beak. 

(a)  Length  in  inches? 

(b)  Size? 

(c)  Color? 

(d)  Use? 

(e)  Lips.     Has  the  bird  any  lips?     Why  is  this  true? 

(8)  Nostrils. 

(a)  Number? 

(b)  Position  on  the  beak? 

(c)  Openings.     With  a  probe  find  out  where  the  nostrils 

open  into  the  mouth. 

(9)  Mouth. 

(a)  Tongue.     Open  the  bird's  mouth  and  examine  the 

tongue.     Describe  it. 

(b)  Glottis.     Back  of  the  tongue,  find  the  glottis.   What 

is  its  shape?     What  is  its  character? 

(c)  Eustachian  tubes.     Pass  a  bristle  through  the  tym- 

panum or  ear-drum  and  see  where  it  enters  the 
mouth.  Is  there  one  or  two  openings  into  the 
roof  of  the  mouth? 

5.  The  Neck. 

(1)  Length? 

(2)  Covering? 

6.  The  Exoskeleton.     The  feathers,  claws,  and  scales  form 
the  exoskeleton. 


182  AVES  (the  bird) 

(1)  The  Feathers. 

(a)  Identify    (1)    the   contour   feathers,    (2)    the   down 

feathers,  (3)  the  pin-feathers,  or  undeveloped 
feathers,  and  (4)  the  filoplumes,  or  hair-hke  feath- 
ers that  remain  on  the  bird  after  plucking. 

(b)  Parts  of  the  body  covered  with  feathers? 

(c)  Parts    of    the    body    not   covered    with    feathers? 

Why? 

(d)  Color,  or  color  patterns,  and  how  made?     Are  they 

bilaterally  symmetric? 

(e)  A  Contour  Feather. 

(1)  Identify  the  quill   (calamus),  the  shaft   (rachis), 

and  the  vane,  which  is  made  up  of  barbs,  barb- 
ules,  and  barbicels. 

(2)  Sketch  a  contour  feather,  showing  and  naming 

all  the  parts. 

(f)  A  Down  Feather.     Compare  with  a  contour  feather 

and  state  parts  lacking,  if  any. 

(g)  A  Filoplume.     Compare  with  a  contour  feather, 
(h)  Use  of  each  kind  of  feathers  to  the  bird? 

(i)    Tail  Feathers. 

(1)  How  many  long  quill  feathers  on  the  tail? 

(2)  Shape  of  the  tail  when  feathers  are  spread  out? 

Shape  when  closed? 

(3)  Symmetry  of  the  vane?     How  do  these  feathers 

overlap?     Why? 

(4)  Color    or    color    patterns    when    open?      When 

closed?    Why? 

(5)  Number,   color,   and  arrangement  of  the  upper 

tail  coverts?     Of  the  lower  tail  coverts? 
(j)    Wing  Feathers. 

(1)  Primaries  on  the  pinion.       Usually  nine  or  ten. 

How  many  do  you  find? 

(2)  Tertiaries  on  the  upper  arm.     How  many? 

(3)  How  many  in  all?     How  many  upper  coverts? 

Lower  coverts? 
(k)  Body  Feathers. 

(1)  Any  contour  feathers?     If  so,  how  man}^? 

(2)  Any  down  feathers?    Approximate  number? 


184  AVES  (the  bird) 

(3)  Any  filoplumes? 

(4)  How  are  the  body  feathers  arranged? 

(1)    Of  what  use  are  feathers  to  the  bird?     To  man? 
(m)  Pluck  off  the  feathers. 

(1)  Where  is  the  skin  thin?     Where  thick? 

(2)  Can  you  find  apteria,  or  spaces  which  did  not  bear 

feathers? 

(3)  What  difference  is  there  in  the  size  of  the  bird 

before  picking  and  after  picking? 

(4)  Weigh  the  plucked  bird.     Compare  this  weight 

with  that  first  found.  What  is  the  difference 
between  these  weights,  or  the  weight  of  the 
feathers? 

(2)  Scales.     Do  the  scales  overlap?     Are  the  anterior  and 

posterior  scales  alike? 

(3)  Claws. 

(a)  How  do  they  unite  with  the  toes? 

(b)  How  do  they  compare  in  color  and  texture  with  the 

covering  of  the  toes  and  legs? 

(c)  Use  of  the  claws?     Are  they  sharp  and  strong  enough 

to  be  successful  weapons  of  defense? 
7.  The   Muscles.     Skin   the  bird  and  expose   the   muscles. 
Hold  the  skin  up  to  the  light.     Do  you  see  any  blood-vessels? 
What  is  their  arrangement?     Their  use?     Demonstrate  (sepa- 
rate out)  the  following  muscles: 

(1)  Those  that  move  the  wing  as  a  whole. 

(2)  Those  that  move  the  parts  of  the  wing  upon  each  other. 

(3)  Those  that  move  the  neck. 

(4)  Those  that  move  the  leg  on  the  body.     Bend  the  leg 

close  up  to  the  body  and  note  the  effect  upon  the  toes. 
What  difference  is  there  in  the  position  of  the  toes 
when  the  leg  is  straight  from  their  position  when  the 
bird  is  on  its  perch? 

(5)  Those  that  move  the  parts  of  the  leg  on  each  other. 

(6)  Those  that  move  all  the  toes  at  once. 

(7)  Those  that  move  each  toe  independently. 

(8)  Remove  the  muscles  from  the  sternum,  noting  the 

blood-vessels  and  nerves  which  enter  them  near  the 
shoulders. 


186  AVES  (the  bird) 

B.  Internal   Morphology 

1.  Carefully  lift  the  abdominal  wall,  and,  with  the  scissors, 
slit  it  from  the  posterior  edge  of  the  sternum  to  the  anus. 
Now,  make  a  transverse  slit  on  each  side  along  the  posterior 
edge  of  the  sternum  and  cut  away  the  flaps  of  the  abdominal 
wall. 

2.  Now  make  a  tiny  opening  in  the  trachea  below  the  string 
you  tied  about  it,  insert  the  blowpipe,  and  inflate  the  lungs  and 
air  sacs. 

Note  (1)  the  paired  abdominal  sacs  near  the  dorsal  wall 
anteriorly,  but  the  ventral  wall  posteriorly,  (2)  the  axillary  sacs 
under  the  wings,  and  (3)  the  branched  interclavicular  sac  be- 
neath the  anterior  end  of  the  sternum  and  the  wish-bone,  or 
clavicles. 

(4)  Do  you  find  other  air  sacs? 

(5)  What  part  of  the  lung  expands  first  in  inflating? 

(6)  Do  you  notice  any  movement  of  the  appendages  when 

you  inflate  the  pigeon's  lungs? 

(7)  Explain  how  air  blown  into  the  lungs  affects  the  bones. 

(8)  Tie  the  trachea  below  the  entrance  of  the  blowpipe  and 

keep  the  lungs  inflated  if  you  can. 

3.  Next,  disjoint  the  coracoid  bones  from  the  scapulae,  or 
shoulder-blades,  and  cut  the  ribs  loose  from  the  sternum. 
Remove  the  coracoids,  clavicles,  and  the  sternum,  thus  exposing 
the  internal  organs.  Note  the  compactness  with  which  the 
internal  organs  are  placed.     Why? 

4.  The  Liver. 

(1)  Color? 

(2)  Location? 

(3)  Number  of  lobes? 

(4)  Use? 

(5)  Identify  and  locate  the  gall-bladder.     Use? 

(6)  Trace  the  bile-ducts   to  the   duodenum,   or   anterior 

loop  of  the  intestine. 

5.  The  Circulatory  System. 

(1)  The  Heart.     Locate  and  identify  the  heart  with  its 
pericardium, 
(a)  Carefully  remove  the  pericardium. 


188  AVES  (the  bird) 

(b)  Identify  and  describe  the  two  auricles  and  the  two 

ventricles. 

(c)  Snip  off  the  apex  of  the  heart  with  a  pair  of  scissors 

and  observe  the  cavities  of  the  two  ventricles. 
Note  the  difference  (1)  in  shape,  and  (2)  in  thick- 
ness of  walls.     Explain. 
6.  The  Digestive  System. 

(1)  Mouth. 

(a)  Size? 

(b)  Shape? 

(c)  Beaks  for  teeth.     Why? 

(2)  The  Pharynx  opens'  into  the  gullet. 

(3)  The  Gullet. 

(a)  Is  the  gullet,  or  esophagus,  the  same  size  all  the  way 

to  the  gizzard?  Can  the  pigeon  swallow  with  its 
head  down? 

(b)  What  is  the  first  enlargement  called?     Of  what  use 

is  the  crop? 

(c)  The  glandular  stomach  is  the  slight  enlargement  near 

the  gizzard.  What  is  its  size  compared  with  that 
of  the  crop?  If  the  opening  into  the  gizzard 
were  closed,  could  fluids  pass  from  the  glandular 
stomach  into  the  intestine? 

(4)  The  Gizzard. 

(a)  Of  what  use  is  the  gizzard,  or  muscular  stomach? 

(b)  Make  a  cross-section  through  the  gizzard. 

(c)  Of  what  does  it  consist? 

(d)  Character  of  the  lining? 

(e)  What  does  it  contain? 

(f)  How  many  openings  has  the  gizzard,  and  into  what? 

(g)  Can  the  opening  from  the  glandular  stomach  be 

closed? 
(h)  Is  the  gizzard  cecal? 

(5)  The  Duodenum.     The  first  loop  of  the  intestine  is 

called  the  duodenum. 

(a)  How  and  by  what  is  it  held  in  position? 

(b)  From  what  is  the  intestine  suspended? 

(c)  Note  the  veins  and  arteries  in  the  mesentery. 


190  AVES  (the  bird) 

(6)  The  Pancreas,  a  yellowish,  slender,  glandular  organ,  lies 

within  the  loop  of  the  duodenum.  Find  the  pan- 
creatic ducts  leading  to  the  right  limb  of  the  loop  of 
the  duodenum. 

(7)  The  Spleen,  a  small,  flat,  red  body,  lies  to  the  right  of  the 

glandular  stomach.  Do  you  find  any  duct  leading 
from  the  spleen? 

(8)  The  Intestine  continues  from  the  duodenum,  its  ante- 

rior part,  to  the  cloaca,  the  enlargement  at  its  poste- 
rior end. 

(a)  Is  it  coiled,  looped,  or  straight? 

(b)  Is  it  the  same  size  all  the  way? 

(9)  The  Rectal  Ceca  are  two  lateral  sacs  or  branches  of  the 

intestine  at  the  end  of  the  small  intestine. 
How  long  are  they  and  how  do  they  end?     Use? 
(XO)  The  Rectum,  or  large,  straight  intestine,  leads  from 
the  entrance  of  the  ceca  to  the  cloaca. 
How  long  is  the  rectum? 

(11)  The  Liver.     (See  B,  4.) 

(12)  Sketch  the  Alimentary  Canal,  name  all  its  parts  in 

order,  and  state  the  use  of  each  part  in  the  work  of 
digestion. 
7.  The  Respiratory  System. 

(1)  The  Glottis.     Look  at  the  base  of  the  tongue  for  the 

opening  into  the  trachea. 

(a)  Does  the  food  pass  over  it  in  entering  the  esophagus? 

(b)  If  so,  how  is  it  prevented  from  passing  into  the  wind- 

pipe? 

(2)  The  Trachea.     Trace  the  trachea  down  to  its  divisions. 

(a)  Is  it  the  same  size  all  the  way? 

(b)  The  enlargement  at  its  anterior  end  is  the  larynx 

and  the  one  at  its  posterior  end  is  the  syrinx,  or 
voice-box. 

(3)  The  Bronchi  are  the  branches,   or  divisions,   of  the 

trachea. 
Do  they  differ  in  size? 

(4)  Remove  the  alimentary  canal  and  sketch  the  respira- 

tory organs. 


192  AVES  (the  bird) 

8.  The  Excretory  Organs.     Find  two  dark-colored  organs, 
the  kidneys,  close  along  the  back. 

Trace  a  ureter  from  each  to  the  cloaca. 

9.  The  Reproductive  Organs,  paired  in  the  male  and  single 
in  the  female,  also  open  by  ducts  into  the  cloaca. 

10.  The  Nervous  System. 

(1)  The  Brain. 

(a)  Carefully   cut   away  the  upper  part  of  the  skull 

and  expose  the  brain. 

(b)  Is  it  smooth  or  convoluted? 

(c)  Identify  and  describe  the  cerebrum,  cerebellum,  the 

two  olfactory  lobes  in  front  of  and  below  the  cere- 
brum, anterior  to  and  below  the  cerebellum. 

(2)  The  Spinal  Cord. 

(a)  Remove  the  bone  along  the  cervical  vertebrae  and 

expose  the  spinal  cord  until  the  brachial  plexus  is 
reached. 

(b)  Trace  nerves  to  the  wings. 

(c)  Continue  to  expose  the  spinal  cord  until  the  lumbar 

plexus  is  reached. 

(d)  Trace  the  nerves  from  the  lumbar  plexus  to  the 

thigh, 
/e)   Continue  exposing  the  spinal   cord  till  the  sacral 
plexus  is  reached. 

(f)  Trace  the  sciatic  nerves  to  the  legs. 

(g)  If  possible,  continue  exposing  the  spinal  cord  until  the 

plexus  pudendus,  which  supplies  the  tail,  is  reached. 

(3)  Sketch  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  showing  the  princi- 

pal plexuses.  State  the  use  of  each  part  of  the 
brain.  Tell  what  part  of  the  body  is  supplied  with 
nerves  from  each  plexus. 

C.  The    Endoskeleton  ^ 

Clean  away  the  flesh  from  the  bones  of  the  unmutilated  bird, 
leaving  all  parts  articulated. 

Weigh.     What  per  cent,  of  the  bird  is  bone?     Why  are  the 
bones  so  light? 

^See  Fig.  216,  "  Principles  of  Economic  Zoology." 


194  AVEs  (the  bird) 

1.  The  Skull. 

(1)  Note  the  quadrate  bone,  to  which  the  lower  jaw  is 

attached. 

(2)  Note  the  large  posterior  opening,  the  occipital  foramen, 

in  the  base  of  the  skull. 

(3)  Are    there    one    or    two    little    knob-like    projections 

(occipital  condyles)  which  fit  into  the  atlas,  or  first 
cervical  vertebra? 

(4)  Are  the  bones  of  the  skull  compact  and  heavy,  or 

spongy  and  light? 

(5)  Are  the  bones  completely  ankylosed  together,  or  can 

you  distinguish  the  sutures  between  them?  The 
sutures  are  less  plainly  visible  in  an  old  bird  than  in 
a  young  one. 

2.  The  Vertebrae. 

(1)  Notice  how  the  first  and  second  vertebrae  fit  together. 

(2)  How  many  vertebrae  are  there  between  the  skull  and 

the  first  pair  of  ribs  articulating  with  the  sternum? 

(3)  How  many  vertebrae  bear  ribs? 

(4)  The  Sacrum.     Fourteen  or  fifteen  vertebrae  are  fused 

together  to  form  the  sacrum  which  supports  the 
pelvic  girdle.  Note  the  openings  through  which  the 
spinal  nerves  pass. 

(5)  How  many  free  caudal  vertebrae  do  you  find? 

(6)  Note  the  terminal  bone,  the  pygostyle,  formed  from 

the  fusing  together  of  several  vertebrae. 

3.  The  Ribs. 

(1)  How  many  ribs  do  not  articulate  with  the  sternum? 

(2)  How  many  ribs  articulate  with  the  sternum? 

(a)  In  what  direction  does  the  vertebral,  or  dorsal,  por- 

tion of  these  ribs  extend? 

(b)  In  what  direction  does  the  ventral  or  sternal  portion 

extend? 

(c)  How  do  they  meet?     At  an  angle  or  in  a  straight  line? 

(d)  What  is  the  advantage  of  this  arrangement? 

4.  The  Pectoral,  or  Shoulder  Girdle. 

(1)  On  each  side,  it  consists  of  a  scapula,  or  shoulder-blade, 
a  stout  coracoid  bone  reaching  from  the  scapula  to 
the  sternum,  or  breast-bone,  and  the  slender  clavicle. 


196  AVES  (the  bird) 

(2)  The   two   clavicles   are   ankylosed   together   at   their 

ventral  ends,  forming  the  'Vish-bone." 

(3)  How  is  this  end  joined  to  the  keel  of  the  sternum? 

(4)  To  what  do  the  proximal  ends  articulate? 

5.  The  Sternum,  or  Breast-bone,  is  the  somewhat  triangular 
bone  below  the  body-cavit3^ 

(1)  What  is  its  shape  next  to  the  viscera?    Why? 

(2)  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  keel  which  projects  on  its 

ventral  side? 

(3)  What  bones  are  attached  to  the  sternum? 

6.  The  Wings. 

(1)  Compare  the  bones  of  the  wing  with  those  of  the  arm 

of  man. 

(2)  Name  and  describe  the  bones  of  the  proximal  and  distal 

portions. 

(3)  In  what  direction  from  its  proximal  attachment  does 

each  of  these  portions  of  the  wing  extend? 

(4)  The  distal  portion  of  the  wing  is  made  up  of  the  bones 

of  the  carpus,  metacarpus,  and  phalanges,  which  are 
much  modified,  fused,  degenerate,  or  lacking. 

(5)  Compare  your  specimen  with  some  good  figure  of  it 

and  find  two  free  carpal  bones,  the  radial  and  the 
ulnar,  the  carpometacarpus,  a  long  curved  bone 
formed  by  the  fusion  of  the  distal  carpal  bones  with 
the  first  three  metacarpals,  and  the  first  three  digits, 
the  third  consisting  of  but  a  single  bone. 

7.  The  Pelvic  Girdle  consists  of  a  right  and  left  innominate 
bone,  each  of  which  is  formed  by  the  fusion  of  the  ilium,  ischium, 
and  pubis,  at  the  union  of  which  is  the  acetabulum,  or  depression 
for  the  head  of  the  femur.  See  if  you  can  distinguish  these 
bones. 

8.  The  Legs. 

(1)  The  femur,   or  thigh  bone,  fits  into  the  acetabulum 

at  its  upper  end. 

(a)  What  is  its  length? 

(b)  In  what  direction  does  it  extend  from  its  upper  at- 

tachment? 

(2)  The  middle  portion  of  the  leg  is  composed  of  two  bones; 

the  tibiotarsus  or  long   bone,  formed  by  the  fusion 


198  AVEs  (the  bird) 

of  the  tibia  with  the  proximal  tarsal  bones,  and  the 
fibula,  a  tiny,  slender  bone  sometimes  fused  with  the 
large  bone. 
(3)  The  distal  portion  consists  of  the  bones  of  the  foot. 

(a)  The  shaft,   or  tarsometatarsus,   is    formed   by  the 

fusion  of  the  distal  tarsal  bones  and  the  second, 
third,  and  fourth  metatarsals.  What  direction, 
then,  does  the  sole  of  the  foot  take? 

(b)  The  toes. 

(1)  Upon  what  does  the  pigeon  walk? 

(2)  How  many  toes  are  present? 

(3)  In  what  direction  do  they  extend? 

(c)  Make  a  sketch  of  the  right  leg,  showing  all  the  bones 

in  their  natural  positions  when  the  bird  is  standing. 
Name  each. 


MAMMALIA    (THE  RABBIT) 

Follow  plan  suggested  for  the  study  of  the  fish,  p.  112. 

Compare  the  fish,  frog,  turtle,  bird  (used),  and  rabbit  (or 
mammal  used).     Make  ten  comparisons. 

What  branch  (chordate)  structures  do  you  find  they  have  in 
common? 

Library  report  on  domesticated  mammals,  from  reading  list 
assigned  by  teacher. 

.  Compare  your  definitions  of  a  fish,  a  frog,  a  turtle,  a  bird,  and 
a  mammal. 

STUDY   OF  A  LIVE  RABBIT 

Study  the  rabbit  in  the  field  if  possible.  If  not,  cage  a  wild 
rabbit  and  study  it  in  the  laboratory,  or  visit  some  one's  pet 
rabbit. 

If  none  of  these  are  available,  then  study  any  live  mammal, 
as  the  cat,  guinea-pig,  white  rat,  squirrel,  prairie-dog,  or  even 
a  horse  or  cow,  making  your  own  outline. 

Field  Study. 

Go  at  morning,  noon,  and  evening,  cautiouslj^  and  repeatedly, 
along  the  hedges  or  neglected  roadsides  in  the  spring,  and  look 
for  rabbits. 

(1)  At  what  time   of   day  do  3^ou  find  one  at  home?     At 

what  time  of  day  do  j^ou  find  one  feeding? 

(2)  What  does    the   rabbit  do  when  it  becomes  aware  of 

your  presence? 

(3)  What  seems  to  be  its  first  impulse  for  protection? 

(4)  What  are  its  adaptations  for  concealment? 

(5)  In  what  position  are  its  ears  when  it  is  squatting? 

(6)  Does  it  change  the  direction  of  its  ears  when  listening? 

Whistle  to  it  while  you  watch. 

(7)  Does  it  see  or  hear  you  first? 

(8)  Can  it  see  in  all  directions  without  turning  its  head? 

(9)  Does  it  sleep  in  the  daytime? 

200 


202  MAMMALIA    (THE    RABBIT) 

(10)  Do  rabbits  play  together?     When? 

(11)  What  are  its  modes  of  locomotion? 

(12)  How  far  can  it  jump? 

(13)  How  high  can  it  jmnp? 

(14)  Can  it  swim? 

(15)  When    chased    by  dogs,   why  does  it   ''circle"   on  its 

tracks? 

(16)  Did  you  ever    hear    a   rabbit  make  a  cry  or  sound? 

When?     Why? 

(17)  What  is  a  rabbit's  food? 

(18)  What  harm  do  they  do? 

(19)  In  what  kind  of  nests  do  they  rear  their  young?     When? 

(20)  Are  the  young   rabbits  helpless,  naked,  and  blind,  or 

covered  with  hair,  active,  and  can  see? 

Morphophysiologic  Study 

A.  External    Morphology 

1.  Size. 

(a)  Length  in  inches?     (From  tip  of  nose  to  tip  of  last 

vertebra  of  tail.) 

(b)  Stout  or  slender  in  body?     Diameter  from  side  to 

side?     Dorsoventrally? 

2.  Shape  of  Body? 

3.  Head. 

(1)  Size.     Small,  medium,  or  large? 

(2)  Cause  of  such  a  shape? 

(3)  Eyes. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Size? 

(c)  Position  on  head? 

(d)  Number  of  eyelids? 

(4)  Ears. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Size?     Length  in  inches?     Why  so  large? 

(c)  Position  on  head? 

(5)  Upper  Lip. 

(a)  Shape?     Why  such  shape? 

(b)  Use? 


204  MAMMALIA    (tHE    RABBIT) 

(6)  Lower  Lip. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Use? 

(7)  The  Tongue? 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Size? 

(c)  Surface? 

(d)  Use? 

(8)  The  Teeth. 

(a)  Incisors. 

(1)  Number  of  incisors  in  each  jaw? 

(2)  What  is  their  particular  shape?     Why?     Are  they 

just  alike  in  the  upper  and  lower  jaw? 

(3)  What   portion   of   these    teeth   is   covered    with 

enamel?   Why  is  not  their  whole  surface  covered? 

(4)  Upon  what  do  the  lower  incisors  fit  against  when 

the  mouth  is  closed? 

(5)  Why  the  space  back  of  the  incisors? 

(6)  What  teeth  are  lacking? 

(7)  How  does  the  rabbit  obtain  its  food? 

(8)  How  does  the  rabbit  chew  its  food? 

(9)  Is  the  movement  of  the  lower  jaw  vertical,  or  hori- 

zontal, or  both?     Feed  one  and  watch  the  jaws 
move. 

(b)  Premolars. 

(1)  Shape? 

(2)  Number  in  each  jaw? 

(3)  Use? 

(c)  Total  number  of  teeth? 

(9)  Cheeks.     Hairy  or  smooth  inside?     Why? 
(10)  Vibrissse  or  ''Whiskers." 

(a)  Where  situated? 

(b)  Number  on  a  side? 

(c)  Color? 

(d)  Use? 
4.  The  Neck. 

(1)  Shape? 

(2)  Length? 

(a)  Length  compared  with  head? 

(b)  Compared  with  body? 


206  MAMMALIA    (THE    RABBIT) 

5.  The  Tail. 

(1)  Shape? 

(2)  Length? 

(3)  Why  so  short? 

(4)  Color? 

(a)  Dorsally? 

(b)  Ventrally? 

(c)  Why  this  difference  in  color? 

6.  The  Limbs. 

(1)  The  Anterior  Limbs. 

(a)  Length? 

(b)  Number  of  digits? 

(c)  Length  of  each  digit? 

(d)  How  many  are  clawed?     Why  clawed? 

(e)  Are  the  feet  padded  with  hair  or  naked?     Why? 

(2)  The  Posterior  Limbs. 

(a,  b,  c,  d,  e)  Same  questions  as  for  anterior  limbs. 

(f)  How  much  longer  are  they  than  the  anterior  limbs? 

Why  so  much  longer? 

(3)  Locomotion. 

(a)  Is  the  rabbit   digitigrade   or  plantigrade?     Which 

are  you? 

(b)  Indicate  the  way  a  rabbit  makes  tracks  when  running. 

(c)  How  great  a  distance,  in  feet,  will,  the  rabbit  jump 

when  running?     How  man}'  feet  high  will  it  jump? 

(d)  Did  you  ever  see  a  rabbit  walk?     Swim?     Climb? 

7.  The  Skin.     Remove  the  skin  from  the  limbs.     About  the 

quickest  way  is  to  make  a  slit  in  the  skin  around  the 
center  of  the  body  and  to  have  two  persons  pull  the 
skin  both  ways  at  once. 

(1)  Is  the  skin  thick  or  thin? 

(2)  Use  to  the  animal?     To  man? 

8.  The  Muscles  or  lean  meat. 

(1)  Determine  the  origin,  insertion,  and  use  of  ten  muscles. 

Consult  human  physiology.     Use  of  so  much  muscle? 

(2)  Demonstrate  the  workings  of  the  muscles  in  the  poste- 

rior foot. 


208  MAMMALIA    (tHE    RABBIT) 

B.  Internal  Morphology 

In  your  dissections,  be  careful  not  to  injure  the  sternum,  ribs, 
or  any  other  bones,  as  you  will  need  them  in  your  study  of  the 
skeleton. 

Cut  through  the  abdominal  muscles  along  the  median  line 
from  the  pelvis  to  the  sternum.  From  the  middle  of  this  slit, 
make  a  short  one  on  each  side  at  right  angles  to  it,  and  turn 
back  the  muscular  flaps,  exposing  the  internal  organs. 

How  do  the  abdominal  muscles  compare  in  thickness  with 
those  on  other  parts  of  the  body?     Why? 

Before  proceding  with  the  dissection,  or  putting  the  specimen 
into  formaldehyd,  insert  the  blowpipe  in  the  trachea,  inflate  the 
lungs,  and  tie  a  string  tightly  about  the  trachea  below  the  blow- 
pipe. 

1.  Peritoneum,  or  lining  of  the  body  cavity.  Its  surface  and 
appearance? 

2.  The  Diaphragm.  A  muscular  partition  divides  the  body 
into  two  portions,  the  anterior,  containing  the  heart  and  lungs, 
and  the  posterior,  containing  the  abdominal  viscera. 

3.  Note  the  position  of  the  organs  in  the  body  cavity? 

4.  The  Circulatory  System. 

(1)  The  Pericardium. 

(a)  Identify  and  describe  it. 

(b)  Use? 

(c)  Contents? 

(2)  The  Heart. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Size? 

(c)  Use? 

(d)  Number  of  auricles? 

(1)  Position? 

(2)  Use? 

(e)  Ventricles. 

(1)  Number? 

(2)  Use? 

(3)  The  Arteries.     (See  Physiology.)     Identify    the    firm, 

elastic  aorta  and  its  branches,  and  trace  them  to  the 
organs  which  they  supply. 


210  MAMMALIA    (tHE    RABBIT) 

.  (4)  The  Veins.  (See  Physiology.)  Identify  the  flabby 
veins  and  trace  them  from  their  origin  in  the  organs 
from  which  they  carry  the  blood  to  the  ascending 
and  descending  vense  cavse,  and  to  their  junction 
with  the  heart. 
(5)  Trace  the  blood  from  the  left  ventricle  to  all  parts  of 
the  body,  naming  the  principal  branches  of  the  aorta, 
and  the  principal  veins  back  through  the  lungs  to  the 
starting  point,  the  left  ventricle.  See  some  good 
figure  in  physiology  for  the  names  of  arteries  and 
veins. 

5.  The  Digestive  System. 

(1)  The  Mouth. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Size,  large  or  small? 

(c)  Contents? 

(d)  Use? 

(2)  The  Pharynx. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Size? 

The   pharynx   leads   into   a   dilatable,   muscular  tube,   the 
esophagus. 

(3)  The  Esophagus.      Thrust  a  probe  down  the  rabbit's 

throat.  Cut  along  the  neck  and  follow  the  esopha- 
gus. Note  the  windpipe  or  trachea,  and  its  position 
as  related  to  the  esophagus,  but  do  not  injure  it. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Size,  length,  and  diameter? 

(c)  Opens  into  what? 

(d)  Use? 

(4)  The  Stomach. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Size?     Which  end  is  the  larger? 

(c)  How  many  openings? 

(d)  Use? 

(5)  The  Liver  is  a  large  dark-colored  organ. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Size? 

(c)  Number  of  lobes? 


212  MAMMALIA    (tHE    RABBIT) 

(d)  Location? 

(e)  Use? 

(f)  Gall-bladder. 

(1)  Identify  it  and  trace  its  duct  to  the  intestine. 

(2)  What  is  the  function  of  the  bile? 

(6)  The  Omentum.     Behind  the  liver  is  a  broad  fold  of 

transparent  membrane,  the  omentum.  It  is  sus- 
pended from  the  posterior  border  of  the  stomach  and 
contains  fat. 

(a)  What  is  the  use  of  the  omentum? 

(b)  What  lies  behind  it? 

(7)  The  Small  Intestine. 

(a)  The  Duodenum.     Joined  to  the  pyloric  or  posterior 

end  of  the  stomach  is  the  duodenum. 

(1)  The  Pancreas  is  in  the  loop  of  the  duodenum.     De- 

scribe it.  Its  use?  Trace  the  duct  or  ducts. 
Into  what  do  they  lead? 

(2)  The  Mesentery  holds  the  folds  of  the  intestines  in 

place.  Describe  it,  noting  any  blood-vessels. 
To  what  is  it  attached?  Of  what  is  it  a  fold  or 
continuation? 

(3)  The  Spleen  is  a  small  red  organ  in  the  mesentery, 

near  the  cardiac  or  anterior  end  of  the  stomach. 
Identify  it.     What  is  its  use? 

(b)  The  Ileum.     From  the  duodenum  to  the  entrance 

of  the  cecum  is  the  ileum.  Cut  the  mesentery  and 
unravel  the  small  intestine  until  you  find  the 
place  where  it  joins  the  large  one. 

(1)  How  many  inches  or  feet  long  is  it? 

(2)  Why  so  long? 

(8)  The  Cecum  is  a  very  large  portion  of   the  intestine, 

ending  blindly. 

(a)  How  long  is  it? 

(b)  Why  so  large? 

(9)  The  Large  Intestine.     Trace  it  to  the  vent. 

(a)  How  does  it  compare  in  size  and  length  with  the 

small  intestine? 

(b)  Total  length  of  the  alimentary  canal?     Why  so  long? 

(c)  Does  the  rabbit  eat  vegetable  or  animal  food? 


214  MAMMALIA    (tHE    RABBIT) 

(10)  Sketch  the  ahmentary  canal.     Name  in  order  all  its 
parts. 

6.  The  Respiratory  System. 

Draw  out  the  tongue  and  look  behind  the  epiglottis,  down  into 
the  larynx,  and  find  the  vocal  cords.  The  slit  between  them 
forms  the  glottis. 

(1)  The  Trachea. 

(a)  Its  structure? 

(b)  Into    what    does    it    divide    before    reaching   the 

lungs? 

(2)  The  Lungs.     Cut  through  the  diaphragm. 

(a)  Size? 

(b)  Shape? 

(c)  Capacity? 

(3)  Sketch  the  respiratory  organs  and  name  the  parts. 

7.  The  Excretory  System. 

(1)  The    Kidneys.     Remove    the    digestive    organs    and 

identify  the  bean-shaped  kidneys. 

(a)  Size? 

(b)  Arrangement,  alternate  or  opposite?    Any  advantage 
from  this  arrangement? 

(2)  The  Ureters.     Identify  the  tube  leacUng  from  each 

kidney  to  the  bladder. 

8.  The  Reproductive  Organs  now  remain.  These  may  be 
easily  identified. 

9.  The  Osseous  System  or  Endoskeleton. 

Carefully  dissect  off  all  the  flesh  and  viscera,  and  leave  the 
bony  skeleton  entire,  clean,  and  uninjured.  By  the  use  of 
wires  and  double-pointed  tacks,  mount  this  skeleton  in  its 
proper  position  on  a  nicely  planed  pine  board. 

Consult  some  good  figures  and  name  all  the  bones. 
(1)  The  Skull. 

(a)  Are  the  bones  distinct  or  fused  together? 

(b)  Notice   the   edges   of  the   contiguous   bones.      Are 

these  wavy,  zigzag,  or  straight? 

(1)  What  are  such  joints  or  unions  called? 

(2)  How  are  the  bones  of  the  human  skull  united? 

(See  human  skeleton  or  Physiology.) 


216  MAMMALIA    (tHE    RABBIT) 

(2)  The  Spinal  Column. 

(a)  Number  of  cervical  or  ribless  vertebrae  just  posterior 

to  the  skull? 

(b)  Number  of  thoracic  or  rib-bearing  vertebrae? 

(c)  Number    of    lumbar    vertebrae — separate    vertebrae 

following  the  ribs? 

(d)  Number  of  sacral  vertebrae  fused  together? 

(e)  How  many  caudal  (tail)  vertebrae? 

(f)  Note  the  shape  of  the  vertebrae  in  different  regions. 

What  differences  in  the  length  of  their  spinous 
processes?  Of  their  transverse  processes?  Why 
these  differences? 

(3)  The  Ribs. 

(a)  How  many  true  ribs,  that  is,  articulated  with  the 

sternum? 

(b)  How  many  false  ribs? 

(c)  Total  number  of  ribs?     How  many  in  man? 

(d)  Use  of  the  ribs? 

(4)  The  Pectoral  Girdle. 

(a)  Complete  or  incomplete? 

(b)  What  bones  present? 

(5)  Fore  Limbs. 

(a)  Name  the  bones. 

(b)  Which  is  the  longer,  the  humerus  or  the  ulna? 

(c)  Radius. 

(1)  Notice  its  articulations. 

(2)  Is  the  proximal  end  internal  or  external  to  the 

ulna? 

(3)  The  distal  end? 

(4)  Can  the  rabbit  carry  its  food  to  its  mouth  as  a 

squirrel  does?     Why? 

(d)  The  Foot. 

(1)  What  part  of  the  front  foot  rests  upon  the  ground 

in  locomotion? 

(2)  How  many  carpal  bones? 

(3)  Metacarpals? 

(4)  Phalanges? 


218  MAMMALIA    (tHE    RABBIT) 

(6)  The  Pelvic  Girdle. 

(a)  Identify  the  three  bones,   ilium,   ischium,   and  os 

pubis,  in  each  side  of  the  pelvic  girdle. 

(b)  Why  are  these  bones  so  firmly  ankylosed  together? 

(c)  Function  of  the  pelvis? 

(7)  The  Hind  Limbs. 

(a)  Which  segment  is  longest? 

(b)  How  long  is  the  tibia,  compared  with  the  fibula? 

(c)  How  are  they  united? 

(d)  With  what  is  the  fibula  united  below? 

(e)  What  part  of  the  hind  foot  does  the  rabbit  rest  upon 

the  ground  when  in  locomotion? 
10.  The  Nervous  System.     If  it  is  desired  to  work  out  the 
nervous  system,  take  a  fresh  specimen.     Skin  it,  remove  the 
internal  organs,  and  follow  the  directions  under  the  Nervous 
System  in  the  study  of  the  frog. 

SYSTEMATIC   STUDY  OF  THE  RABBIT 

For  study  of  Branch  and  Class  characteristics,  see  studies 
of  Chordate  Branch  and  Class  Characteristics,  p.  128. 

Study   of   Ordinal    Characteristics 

Have  for  reference  several  different  species  of  the  order  to 
which  this  animal  Ijelongs.  If  not  present  for  reference,  name 
and  have  in  mind  several  different  species  of  the  order. 

1.  The  Exoskeleton  or  Covering. 

(1)  Do  you  discover  any  ordinal  modifications  of  the  class 

covering?     If  so,  what? 

(2)  Of  what  use  is  it  to  this  order  of  animals? 

2.  The  Head.  What  ordinal  peculiarities  do  you  discover  as 
to  the  size,  shape,  or  appendages  (horns,  tusks,  etc.)  of  the  head? 

3.  The  Teeth. 

(1)  Present  or  absent? 

(2)  Kind  of  teeth  present  (incisors,  canines,  molars)? 

(3)  What  does  the  kind  of  teeth  indicate  as  to  the  food 

and  feeding  habits  of  this  order? 

(4)  If  it  has  no  teeth,  what  substitute  does  it  possess? 


220  MAMMALIA    (tHE    RABBIT) 

4.  The  Limbs. 

(1)  What  modifications,  if  any,  of  the  anterior  Umbs?  or 

digits? 

(a)  Digits  clawed  or  unclawed? 

(b)  For  what  are  they  adapted? 

(2)  What  modifications,  if  any,  of  the  posterior  hmbs?    For 

what  are  they  adapted?     Digits? 

(3)  Is  the  animal  plantigrade,  or  digitigrade,  or  neither? 

5.  The  rabbit  (or  mammal  used)  belongs  to  Order 

because  it  has  the  following  characteristics  of  Order 

(Student  name  them.) 


MAN 

Habitat. — How  does  man's  habitat  differ  from  that  of  any 
other  animal?     Why? 

Food. — Take  4,  General  Preliminary  Study. 

Locomotion. — What  is  peculiar  regarding  the  position  and 
locomotion  of  man? 

What  methods  of  moving  from  place  to  place  does  man  have 
which  other  animals  cannot  have  except  through  the  agency  of 
man?     Why? 

Self  Defense. — Is  man  naturall}^  so  well  fitted  for  self  defense 
as  some  other  animals?  If  any  other  animals  have  better  adap- 
tations, name  them.     Explain  this. 

Rivalry. — What  means  of  rivalry  has  man? 

Do  we  find  any  mimicry? 

Are  there  warning  or  alluring  colors  among  men  and  women? 
If  so,  give  examples. 

Parasitism. — What  parasites  has  man? 

Did  you  ever  see  a  parasitic  man?     What  was  the  effect? 

Environment. — Are  man's  activities  influenced  by  the  weather 
and  by  climate?     How? 

If  man's  environment  does  not  suit  him,  what  may  he  do  in- 
stead of  migrating  or  hibernating? 

Name  some  environment  influences  that  tend  to  make  man 
migrate. 

Distribution. — Geographic? 

Geologic?     (See  Geology.) 

Barriers  to  distribution?     Why  so  few? 

MORPHOPHYSIOLOGIC   STUDY 

Of  what  does  the  dermal  system  of  man  consist? 

Does  man  molt? 

How  does  man's  locomotory  system  compare  with  that  of 
other  animals?  Is  it  surpassed  by  that  of  any  other  animal? 
If  so,  how? 


224  MAN 

Trace  the  development  of  the  circulatory  organs  from  Amoeba 
to  and  including  man. 

In  same  manner  trace  the  development  of  the  digestive  or- 
gans. 

Trace,  likewise,  the  respiratory  organs. 

Trace  the  nervous  system  also. 

Trace  each  sense  organ  from  its  ifirst  appearance  to  its  highest 
stage  of  development. 

Which  of  these  are  more  highly  developed  in  other  animals 
than  in  man?     In  what  animals? 

Mind. — Use  the  Animal  Behavior  Study,  making  necessary 
modifications  or  omissions. 

The  Moral  Nature. — Do  animals  have  a  code  of  morals? 

Does  a  horse  or  dog  ever  steal,  as  he  views  it? 

Classification. — Classify  man,  naming  branch,  class,  order, 
and  scientific  name,  and  giving  reason  for  each  step  in  the 
classification. 

Conclusion. — What  do  you  conclude  man  has  in  common  with 
other  animals? 

In  what  is  he  superior?     Inferior? 


PROTOZOA 

Suggestions  for  Laboratory  Work. — Specimens  of 
Amoebae  may  be  found  upon  the  slimy  coating  of  stems  which 
have  been  standing  for  some  time  in  water,  or  upon  submerged 
leaves,  or  "on  the  slimy  ooze  upon  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of 
standing  water,"  upon  the  under  side  of  lily  pads  or  along  their 
stems,  or  from  the  scum  found  on  the  inside  of  old  water- 
barrels. 

The  Paramsecium  may  be  obtained  by  soaking  in  pond  water, 
for  a  week,  in  a  warm  place,  hay  which  has  been  cut  in  pieces. 
A  scum  will  appear.  With  a  pipette  place  a  drop  of  this  scum 
under  the  microscope  and  follow  the  outline  given  below,  or 
verify  the  points  mentioned  in  the  text. 


MORPHOPHYSIOLOGIC  STUDY 

1.  The  Body  is  one-celled. 

(1)  Shape? 

(2)  Size? 

(3)  Fixed  or  free? 

(4)  Naked  (as  in  Amoeba),  or  covered  with  cilia,  or  with  a 

shell? 

2.  Appendages  of  the  body.     If  any,  called  what? 

3.  Motion.  In  the  higher  forms,  motion  is  carried  on  by 
means  of  (1)  the  muscular  system,  and  (2)  the  skeleton.  How 
are  motion  and  locomotion  carried  on  by  this  one-celled  pro- 
tozoan? 

4.  Nutrition  of  the  Body.  Digestion,  circulation,  respiration, 
excretion — how  are  these  processes  carried  on,  since  this  is  a  one- 
celled  animal  and  has  no  organs? 

5.  MultipHcation.  Is  it  asexual,  sexual,  or  does  it  multiply 
both  asexually  and  sexually? 

226 


228  PROTOZOA 

6.  The  Nervous  System.     Since  it  is  a  one-celled  animal,  it 
has  no  differentiated  nerve  cells. 

(1)  Has  it  irritability?     How  shown?     Use? 

(2)  Automatic  actions.     Name  those  of  this  animal.     Why 

automatic? 

(3)  Reflex  actions.     Name  those  of  this  animal.     Why 

reflex? 

7.  Sketch  an  Amoeba,  showing  its  pseudopodia. 

8.  Classification  of  Amoeba.     Consult  descriptive  zoologies 
for  the  branch  and  class  of  Amoeba. 


PORIFERA 

MORPHOPHYSIOLOGIC   STUDY 

Laboratory  exercise  on  the  Bath  Sponge. 
Suggestion. — Select   ^'hard  head''  sponges  that  have  been 
mutilated  as  little  as  possible. 

1 .  The  Body  is  many  celled  and  has  an  inner  and  outer  germ- 
layer,  and  a  middle,  undifferentiated  one,  the  mesoglea. 

(1)  Shape? 

(2)  Size? 

(3)  Color? 

(4)  Sessile  or  free?     Can  you  tell  from  your  specimen 

whether  or  not  it  has  been  fixed  to  some  object? 

(5)  Naked  or  covered?     If  covered,  what  is  the  covering 

called? 

(6)  Skeleton.     With    a    compound    microscope,    examine 

some  of  the  fibers  of  the  sponge.     Do  you  find  any 
spicules?^ 

2.  Appendages.     If  any,  called  what? 

3.  Motion  and  locomotion.     The  sponge  is  free  in  its  larval 
state.     Hov/  is  locomotion  then  carried  on? 

4.  Nutrition. 

(1)  Cut  from  the  osculum  to  the  cloaca,  the  large  interior 

space,  and  count  the  canal  systems.     The  number 
of  oscula  indicates  the  number  of  individual  sponges. 

(2)  Is  there  any  connection  between  the  small  inhalent 

pores  and  these  canals?     Why? 

(3)  As  it  has  no  well-defined  systems,  how  are  the  processes 

of  digestion,  circulation,  respiration,  and  excretion 
carried  on? 

(4)  What  is  its  food?     How  obtained?* 

5.  Multiplication. 

(1)  Asexual?     If  so,  by  what?     Budding,  fission,  etc. 

(2)  Sexual?     If  so,  are  the  sexes  separate,  or  is  the  sponge 

hermaphroditic? 
1  See  Part  II,  "Economic  Zoology,"  page  11. 
230 


232  PORIFERA 

6.  The  Nervous  System.     It  has  no  differentiated  nerve  cells. 

(1)  Has  it  irritability?     How  shown?     Use? 

(2)  Automatic  actions.     Name  those  of  this  animal. 

(3)  Reflex  actions.     Name  those  it  has. 

7.  Make  a  sketch  of  one  complete  canal  system. 

8.  See  text  for  Summary  of  Branch  and  Class  characteristics 
of  Porifera. 


CGELENTERATA 

MORPHOPHYSIOLOGIC   STUDY 

Suggestion. — This  study  may  be  adapted  for  the  study  of 
any  Coelenterate  by  omitting  some  questions  and  enlarging  upon 
others.  The  Hydra  is  probably  the  most  easily  obtained,  and 
makes  a  good  study  of  this  branch. 

CoUect  from  quiet  streams  or  ponds,  duck-weed  or  other  water 
plants.  Place  them  in  a  large  glass  jar  and  put  the  jar  where  the 
light  will  shine  upon  it.  The  hydras  will  collect  on  the  hghted 
side,  as  they  are  positively  heliotropic. 

Break  off  a  tiny  piece  of  stem  or  leaf  supporting  a  hydra. 
Place  it  upon  a  slide  with  a  little  water  and  watch  it  for  several 
minutes.  Does  it  change  its  position?  When  it  is  extended, 
touch  it  with  a  needle.     What  does  it  do? 

1.  The  Body. 

(1)  Is  it  one  celled  or  many  celled? 

(2)  Size.    How  long  is  your  specimen?    (Length  in  inches 

or  fraction  of  an  inch.) 

(3)  Shape.     Is  it  tubular,  or  what  shape  is  it?     Broad  or 

slender? 

(4)  Is  the  body  fixed  or  free?     If  fixed,  by  what  portion  of 

the  body?  How?  Is  it  temporarily  or  permanently 
attached?  Carefully  push  it  loose  with  the  handle 
of  your  scalpel.     What  does  it  do? 

(5)  Closed  or  open?     If  the  body  is  open,  describe  its 

opening  and  give  its  position  on  the  body.  (Use 
the  hand  lens  for  this,  or,  if  necessary,  place  your 
specimen  on  a  slide  in  a  drop  of  water,  put  a  thread 
or  tiny  broom  straw  on  each  side  of  the  hydra,  and 
cover  it  with  a  cover-slip,  resting  the  edges  of  the 
cover  upon  the  threads  or  straws  to  avoid  injuring 
the  specimen,  and  continue  your  study  under  the  low 
power  of  the  microscope.) 

(6)  Color.     What  is  the  color  of  your  specimen?     Is  it 

of  uniform  color  on  all  parts  of  the  body? 

234 


236  CCELENTERATA 

(7)  Symmetry.  Is  this  animal  asymmetric,  radially  or 
bilaterally  symmetric,  or  is  it  both  radially  and 
bilaterally  symmetric? 

2.  The  Appendages,  or  Tentacles. 

(1)  Number? 

(2)  Shape? 

(3)  Are  they  hollow  or  solid? 

(4)  Where  and  how  are  they  arranged? 

3.  Locomotion  and  Motion.      In  the  Coelenterates  there  is  a 
differentiation  of  muscle-cells  and  unstriped  muscle-fibers. 

(1)  Has  this  animal   any  locomotion?     If  so,   how  is  it 

accomplished?  By  body  movement,  or  by  move- 
ment of  appendages,  or  by  both?  Describe  accu- 
rately the  successive  steps  in  locomotion. 

(2)  What    motions — aside     from     locomotion — has     this 

animal? 
Place  a  tiny  particle  of  meat  on  the  tip  of  a  tentacle. 
What  does  the  tentacle  do?     Put  the  meat  at  the 
base  of  the  tentacle.     What  happens? 

(3)  The  skeleton  is  the  passive  system  of  motion  and  loco- 

motion in  the  higher  forms. 

(a)  Does  this  animal  have  a  skeleton?      If  so,  of  what 

does  it  consist? 

(b)  What  is  its  purpose? 

4.  The  Nutrition  of  the  Animal. 

(1)  What  is  its  food?     How  is  it  obtained? 

(2)  Is  there  any  vestige  of  a  tube  or  gullet  dipping  down 

from  the  mouth  into  the  body  cavity? 

(3)  Are  there  any  divisions  of  the  gastrovascular   cavity? 

Do  the  tentacles  have  any  communication  with  the 
cavity? 

(4)  How  and  where  are  the  processes  of  digestion,  circula- 

tion, and  respiration  carried  on?  Where  is  the  waste 
ejected? 

(5)  Is  there  any  advancement  in  the  work  of  nutrition  over 

that  in  the  Amoeba  and  sponge?     If  so,  what? 

5.  Multiphcation. 

(1)  The  hydra  is  hermaphroditic.  Near  the  tentacles,  look 
for  small,  conical  projections.     These  are  the  sper- 


238  c(elentp:rata 

maries.      Sometimes,  by  careful  work  with  the  mi- 
croscope, the  sperm  cells  may  be  made  out  in  the 
spermary,  or  breaking  through  into  the  water. 
(2)  Look  for  buds.     In  what  different  stages  do  you  find 
them?     Sketch. 

6.  The  Skin  or  Dermal  System  in  the  higher  forms.  The 
skin  is  an  organ  of  respiration  and  excretion. 

(1)  Does  this  animal  possess  a  skin?      If  so,  of  what  use 

is  it  to  the  animal? 

(2)  Are  there  any  growths  of  the  skin?  (if  it  has  a  skin), 

such  as  cilia,  scales,  feathers,  hair,  etc. 

7.  The  Nervous  System. 

(1)  Of  what  does  it  consist  in  this  animal? 

(2)  Use  to  the  animal? 

(3)  What  special  senses  have  you  observed  this  animal  use? 

(4)  Prove  that  it  has  a  sense  of  touch. 

(5)  Prove  that  it  has  either  smell  or  taste. 

8.  Organs  of  Defense  or  Offense.  Look  for  tiny  swellings  of 
the  ectoderm,  especially  of  the  tentacles.  These  are  the  nema- 
tocysts  or  stinging  cells.  Place  a  drop  of  acetic  acid  under  the 
cover-slip  and  watch  these  cells.     What  takes  place? 

SYSTEMATIC   STUDY 

1.  Body  segmented  or  unsegmented? 

2.  Symmetry? 

3.  Plan  of  structure  of  body  and  appendages  of  this  animal? 

4.  MultipHcation? 

5.  Means  of  defense? 

6.  The  Coelenterate  belongs  to  Branch  Coelenterata,  for  it 
has  the  following  branch  characteristics  common  to  sea-anem- 
one, hydra,  coral,  polyps,  and  jelly-fish:  (Student  fill  blanks 
1-5.) 

(1)  As  to  body, 

(2)  As  to  appendages, 

(3)  As  to  plan  of  structure, 

(4)  Multiplication,  by 

(5)  Defense,  by  means  of 

7.  Remark. — The  object  of  this  systematic  study  is  to  dis- 
cover the  Coelenterate  Branch  Characteristics. 


ECHINODERMATA    (THE    STARFISH) 
MORPHOPHYSIOLOGIC  STUDY 

A.  External   Morphology 

1.  General  Shape?     Use  of  this  shape  to  the  starfish? 

2.  Symmetry. 

(1)  Radial  or  bilateral? 

(2)  Advantage  of  this? 

3.  Arms  or  Rays. 

(1)  Number  in  your  specimen? 
■      (2)  Size? 

4.  Aboral  Surface.  The  surface  upon  which  the  mouth  is 
situated  is  called  the  oral  surface,  and  the  surface  opposite  the 
mouth,  the  aboral  surface. 

(1)  Shape  of  the  aboral  or  upper  surface?     Use? 

(2)  Aboral  Spines  or  Projections. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Number? 

(c)  Use? 

(3)  Madreporic  Plate.     Look  between  the  bases  of  two  of 

the  rays  for  a  wart-like  or  sieve-like  plate. 

(a)  Color? 

(b)  Use? 

(c)  Into  what  do  its  perforations  lead? 

(4)  Pedicellarise    or   pinchers.      These    are    soft,    flexible 

projections  among  the  spines.  Scrape  off  a  httle  of 
the  spiny  mass.  Mount  it  in  water  on  a  sUde,  and 
examine  under  the  microscope  (X  100). 

(a)  Estimate  the  number  on  one  ray. 

(b)  Position? 

(c)  Structure? 

(d)  Use? 

(5)  Sketch  the  aboral  surface  (1),  naming  all  parts  studied. 

240 


242  ECHIXODERMATA    (tHE    STARFISH) 

5.  The  Oral  Surface. 

(1)  Shape  of  the  oral  surface  as  compared  with  the  aboral 

surface?     Why  this  difference? 

(2)  Spines. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Position? 

(c)  Arrangement? 

(d)  Use? 

(3)  Ambulacra,  or  tube  feet.     In  the  groove  of  each  arm 

or  ray  observe  soft  disk-shaped  structures. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Size? 

(c)  Number  of  rows? 

(d)  Number  in  each  row? 

(e)  Total  estimate  for  the  entire  animal? 

(f)  How  are  these  tube  feet  used?     These  tube  feet  will 
be  further  studied  in  the  internal  dissection. 

6.  The  Nervous  System.  Find  a  whitish  or  yellowish  cord 
in  the  ambulacra!  groove  of  each  ray. 

(1)  Trace  it  to  its  termination  distally. 

(2)  Trace  it  to  its  termination  proximally.     With  what 

does  it  here  unite? 

(3)  Senses.     Find  the  ' 'eye-spot"  at  the  distal  end  of  each 

ray. 

(a)  Color? 

(b)  Use? 

(4)  Sketch  plan  of  nervous  system. 

7.  Skeleton. 

Examine  a  dried  specimen  or,  lacking  that,  dry  a  portion  of 
a  ray  for  two  or  three  days,  then  find  the  calcareous  plates  and 
sketch  the  plan  of  structure  for  the  skeleton. 

B.  Internal   Morphology 
Cut  along  both  edges  of  each  ray.     Lay  each  flap  back,  or  re- 
move it,  taking   care  not  to  injure  the  delicate  organs  or  the 
madreporic  plate.     Dissect  under  water. 
1.  The  Digestive  System. 

(1)  The  Mouth.     On  the  oral  or  under  side,  find  the  mouth, 
(a)  Size? 


244  ECHINODERMATA    (tHE    STARFISH) 

(b)  Shape? 

(c)  Any  teeth? 

(2)  The  Stomach  is  a  large  sac-Uke  organ  filUng  most  of 

the  disk.     Inflate  it  or  fill  it  with  water  to  distend  it. 
Does  any  part  of  the  stomach  reach  out  into  the  rays? 

(3)  Hepatic  Ceca,  digestive  glands  or  livers.      In  each  arm 

find  elongated,  branched  brown  or  green  bodies  or 
organs. 

(a)  Size? 

(b)  Shape? 

(c)  Position? 

(d)  Number  in  each  arm? 

(e)  Where  do  they  unite? 

(f)  Into  what  do  they  empty? 

(g)  Use? 

(4)  The  Mesentery.     Trace  it  as  it  holds  the  ceca  together 

and  suspends  them  from  the  aboral  wall. 

(5)  The  Extensor  Muscles.     Find  them  along  the  center  of 

a  flap  of  a  ray  which  you  have  turned  back. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Color? 

(c)  Size? 

(d)  Use? 

(6)  The  Intestines  are  slender  and  short,  leading  from  the 

stomach  to  the  vent. 

(a)  Why  are  they  so  short  and  weak? 

(b)  How  does  the  starfish  feed? 

(c)  What  is  its  food? 

2.  The  Reproductive  System.  The  reproductive  organs  or 
gonads  are  found  along  with  the  hepatic  ceca  in  the  floor  of  each 
ray.     They  are  usually  smaller  and  more  grape-like. 

(1)  Shape? 

(2)  Size? 

(3)  Color? 

(4)  Number? 

(5)  Where  do  they  unite? 

(6)  Use? 

3.  Sketch  the  plan  of  the  digestive  and  of  the  reproductive 
systems. 


246  ECHINODERMATA    (tHE    STARFISH) 

4.  The  Water  Vascular  or  Am]:)ulacral  System  is  the  means  of 
locomotion. 

(1)  The  Ampullae.      Along  the  floor  of  each  ray  of  an  in- 

jected specimen  find  numerous  vesicles  or  sacs. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Size? 

(c)  Color? 

(d)  Number  of  rows?     Number  in  each  row? 

(e)  Total  number  for  the  ray?     Estimated  number  for 
the  starfish?     Use? 

(f)  How  are  these  ampullae  connected  with  the  tube  feet? 

(g)  How  are    they  (the  ampullae)  connected  with  each 
other? 

(2)  Sketch  plan  of  the  ambulacral  system. 

SYSTEMATIC   STUDY  FOR  BRANCH   ECHINODERMATA 

1.  Plan  of  Structure.  Look  carefully  at  the  sea-urchin  and 
sea-cucumber  and  others  for  the  plan  of  five  in  the  divisions  or 
organs  of  the  body. 

2.  Symmetry.     Radial,  or  bilateral,  or  both? 

3.  Water  Vascular  System.     Present  or  absent? 

4.  The (animals  examined)  have  the  following 

branch  characteristics:     (Student  name  them.)     Hence  they 
belong  to  Branch  Echinodermata. 

SYSTEMATIC  STUDY  FOR  THE  CLASSES  OF  ECHINODERMATA 

Use  a  starfish,  a  sea-urchin,  a  sea-cucumber,  or  good  pictures 
of  the  representatives  of  other  classes. 

1.  Is  this  animal  fixed  or  free? 

2.  Body  with  central  disk  and  pentameral  rays,  globular  with- 
out rays,  long  and  cylindric,  or  with  an  acorn-like  top  on  a  lonp; 
flexible  stalk? 

3.  Arms  or  rays. 

(1)  Number? 

(2)  Are  the  cecal  processes  contained  in  the  arms? 

4.  Tentacles  present  or  absent? 

5.  This  animal  has  the  following  characteristics : 

hence  it  belongs  to  Class 

Remark. — Consult  descriptive  zoologies  for  Classes  of 
Echinodermata. 


ANNULATA 

STUDY  OF  LIVE  EARTHWORMS 
1.  Collecting. 

(1)  Habitat.    Dig  for  earthworms  in  various  kinds  of  soil — 

loose  and  open,  compact,  rich,  poor,  wet,  and  dry 
soils. 

(a)  In  which  soil  are  the  earthworms  most  numerous? 

(b)  How  do  their  depths  in  these  soils  vary? 

(2)  Homes  or  burrows. 

(a)  In  what  direction  do  the  burrows  extend?     Is  there 

any  connection  between  them? 

(b)  Are  they  lined?     If  so,  with  what? 

(c)  Do  the  earthworms  stop  up  the  entrances  to  their 

holes?     If  so,  with  what? 

(d)  How  large  are  their  holes?     Why  are  they  of  this 

size? 

(e)  Is  there  any  food  stored  up  in  these  burrows?     If 

so,  what? 

(f)  Carefully  dig  up  a  cubic  foot  of  soil  where  you  find  the 

earthworms  numerous,  let  it  dry  thoroughly,  then 
break  it  in  two. 

(1)  Trace  the  burrows. 

(2)  Sketch  a  section,  showing  several. 

(3)  How  many  openings  do  you  find  at  the  surface  on 

a  square  foot?     How  many  would  there  be  at 
the  same  rate  in  an  acre? 

(3)  Activities. 

(a)  Do  you  find  the  earthworms  active  in  the  daytime? 

(b)  Take  a  lantern  and  look  for  them  at  night,  going  very 

quietly. 
(1)  Do  you  find  them  out  of  the  burrows  at  night? 
Look  carefully  and  see  if  they  are  entirely  out 
of  them.     Try  to  pull  one  out.     What  does  it 
do?     How? 


250  ANNULATA 

(2)  What  are  they  doing  outside  of  the  burrows? 

(3)  Try   experiments  by   making   different   kinds   of 

noises,  such    as  halloaing,  clapping  the  hands, 
beating  tin-pans,  etc.,  to  find  out  if  they  can 
hear.     Do  not  get  so  close  as  to  jar  them. 
(c)  Now  try  stamping  the  ground  near  them,  or  otherwise 
jar  them  strongly.     What  do  they  do?     How? 
2.  Laboratory  Study. 

(1)  Take  a  wide-mouthed  jar  (candy,  museum,  or  battery 

jar),  nearly  fill  it  with  black  soil,  and  firm  it  down 
well.  Keep  it  cool  and  moist,  not  wet.  Put  thirty 
or  forty  earthworms  on  top  of  the  soil  and  watch 
what  they  do.  Cover  the  jar  with  fine  wire  screen 
and  allow  it  to  stand  undisturbed  until  night. 

(2)  Foods  and  Feeding. 

(a)  In  the  evening  place  small  bits  of  various  kinds  of 

vegetables,  lean  and  fat  meat,  etc.,  on  the  surface 
of  the  soil,  to  find  out  whether  they  are  carnivorous, 
herbivorous,  or  omnivorous. 

(b)  Do  they  choose  their  food  by  taste,  smell,  or  feeling? 

(c)  Where  do  they  feed?     In  or  out  of  the  burrows? 

(d)  When  do  they  feed? 

(3)  Influence  of  light.     Set  the  jar  where  one-half  of  it  will 

be  in  a  bright  light,  and  the  other  side  in  the  dark, 
or  cover  one  side.  Which  side  of  the  jar  do  the  earth- 
worms prefer,  the  light  or  the  dark  side? 

(4)  Locomotion. 

(a)  Lay  the  earthworm  on  a  wet  paper  and  note  its 

motions. 

(b)  Does  it  accomplish  any  locomotion?     How? 

(c)  Can  it  move  backward?     If  so,  just  how? 

(d)  Try  (a),   (b),  and  (c)  again,  this  time  placing  the 

earthworm  on  a  clean  piece  of  glass.  Results. 
Turn  it  over  on  its  back.     What  does  it  do?     How? 

(5)  Sensitiveness. 

(a)  What  portion  of  the  surface  of  the  body  is  most  sen- 

sitive to  light? 

(b)  Most  sensitive  to  touch?    Is  any  portion  not  sensitive 

to  touch? 


252  ANNULATA 

MORPHOPHYSIOLOGIC   STUDY 

A.  External   Morphology 

1.  Shape?     Use  of  this  shape  to  the  animal? 

2.  Size. 

(1)  Length  of  earthworm  when  quiet?     When  extended? 

(2)  Thickness  laterally?     Dorsoventrally? 

(3)  How^  does  the  thickness  compare  with  the  length? 

3.  Covering.     Is  the  skin  naked  or  covered?     If  covered, 
with  what? 

4.  Surfaces. 

(1)  Shape  and  color  of  the  dorsal  surface?     Use? 

(2)  Shape  and  color  of  vental  surface? 

(3)  Do  these  surfaces  differ  in  shape  and  color?     If  so,  why? 

5.  Somites  or  Segments. 
(1)  Number? 

,  (2)  Are  they  similar  in  different  regions?     Why? 

6.  Cingulum,  Girdle,  or  Clitellum — a  swollen  region  near  the 
anterior  end. 

(1)  Over  how  many  somites  does  it  extend? 

(2)  Does  it  extend  entirely  around  the  body? 

(3)  Use  to  the  earthworm? 

7.  Setse  or  Feet  on  ventral  side.     Use  hand  lens  or  feel  them 
along  the  ventral  surface. 

(1)  How  many  to  each  somite? 

(2)  Upon  how  many  somites  are  they  found? 

(3)  How  many  rows  in  all? 

(4)  How  many  setae  on  the  entire  earthworm? 

(5)  Use  of  these  setse? 

8.  Openings  in  the  Body  Wall.     Identify  as  many  as  you  can 
with  the  hand  lens. 

(1)  Mouth  at  anterior  end. 

(2)  Vent  at  posterior  end. 

(3)  Seminal  receptacles.     Look  for  them  with  hand  lens 

about  the  9th-llth  somites. 

(4)  Oviducts.     Look  for  them  about  the  9th  somite. 

(5)  Vas  deferens,  about  the  15th  somite. 

(6)  Dorsal  pores — along  the  dorsal  surface. 

(7)  Nephridial  openings — one  pair  to  each  somite. 


254  ANN U LATA 

B.  Internal   Morphology 

1.  Pin  a  dead  worm  on  a  wax-bottomed  pan  or  on  a  sheet  of 
cork,  or  on  a  soft  pine  board,  and  sink  it  in  the  water.  With 
sharp  scissors  cut  through  the  body  wall  along  the  median  dorsal 
line.  Spread  out  and  pin  down  the  body  wall,  exposing  the 
internal  organs. 

2.  Body  Wall. 

(1)  Thickness? 

(2)  Of  how  many  layers  does  it  consist? 

(3)  Use  of  each  layer? 

3.  Body  Cavity  or  Coelom.  Between  the  body  wall  and  the 
alimentary  canal  is  a  great  cavity  divided  into  compartments 
by  the  muscular  partitions. 

4.  Circulatory  Organs. 

(1)  In  a  live  specimen,  find  (with  the  hand  lens)  the  dorsal 

blood-vessel  along  the  dorsal  side. 

(a)  In  what  direction  does  the  blood  flow? 

(b)  Extent  of  this  tube? 

(c)  Its  branches— how  many?     These  are  called  ''hearts'* 

or  aortic  arches.     (Segments  6-10.) 

(2)  Ventral  blood-vessel.      Below  the    alimentary    canal, 

find  another  vessel.  How  does  the  blood  flow  in  this 
blood-vessel — forward  or  backward? 

(3)  Sketch  the  internal  organs,  using  red  for  blood-vessels, 

yellow  for  alimentary  canal,  and  blue  for  nerves. 
Make  a  sketch  one  inch  in  diameter,  or  draw  it  on 
the  board. 

5.  Alimentary  Canal,  or  Digestive  Organs.  Parts  in  order: 
Mouth,  pharynx,  esophagus,  crop,  gizzard,  stomach-intes- 
tine. 

(1)  The  mouth — in  somites  one  and  two. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Size? 

(c)  Use? 

(d)  Any  teeth? 

(2)  The  pharynx — in  somites  2-7.     (a),    (b),    (c)   as  for 

mouth. 

(3)  The  esophagus — about  somites  6-15.     (a),  (b),  (c). 


256  ANNULATA 

(4)  The  crop — about  somite  15.     (a),  (b),  (c). 

(5)  The  gizzard — about  somite  17.     (a),  (b),  (c). 

(6)  The  stomach-intestine — from  about  somite  17  to  end 

of  body. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Size? 

(c)  Use? 

(d)  Length? 

(e)  Diameter? 

(f)  Straight  or  coiled? 

(g)  Pouched  or  straight? 
(h)  Color? 

(i)    Contents? 

(j)    Typhlosole,  or  longitudinal    ridge  in  the  intestine 
(a).     Shape? 

(7)  What  is  the  function  of  the  alimentary  canal? 

(8)  What  is  the  specific  function  of  each  of  its  parts?     Do 

not  say  "aids  digestion,"  but  tell  just  what  part  in 
the  work  of  digestion  each  organ  performs. 
6.  Respiratory  System.  Respiration  is  carried  on  through 
the  whole  body  surface.  The  skin  is  filled  with  a  network  of 
blood-vessels.  These  vessels  take  up  the  necessary  oxygen  and 
give  off  the  waste  matters  to  the  air.  Is  the  earthworm  poikilo- 
thermal  or  homoiothermal?     Why? 

■  7.  Nervous  System.     Below  the  intestines  is  found  the  nerve 
cord. 

(1)  Trace  it  to  the  posterior  end  of  the  body. 

(a)  Is  it  a  double  or  a  single  cord? 

(b)  Do  you  find  a  ganglion  to  each  somite? 

(2)  Trace  it  to  the  anterior  end  of  the  body. 

(a)  Do  you  find  one  or  two  ganglia  to  each  somite? 

(b)  Does  the  nerve  cord  continue  as  a  single  cord  to  the 

end  of  the  body? 

(c)  If  it  divides,  where?     What  is  the  destination  of  each 

branch? 

(3)  Cerebral  Ganglia.     Look  for  them  on  the  dorsal  side, 

about    the    second    or    third    somite.     Trace    their 
branches. 


258  ANNULATA 

(4)  Sketch  the  nervous  system  of  the  earthworm.     What  is 

its  use? 

(5)  Special  Senses. 

8.  Excretory  System.     The  Nephridia.     Look  for  Httle  white, 
coiled  tubes  between  the  septa. 
(1)  Trace  one. 

(a)  Where  does  it  open? 

(b)  Use? 

C.  Cross-section 

1.  Dorsal  Wall. 

(1)  Cuticle — thin,  iridescent. 

(2)  Epidermis. 

(3)  Dermis. 

(4)  Circular  muscles. 

(5)  Longitudinal  muscles. 

2.  Coelom  or  Body  Cavity. 

3.  Dorsal  Blood-vessel. 

4.  Alimentary  Canal. 

5.  Ventral  Blood-vessel. 

6.  Nerve  Cord. 

7.  Ventral  Wall. 

(1)  Longitudinal  muscles. 

(2)  Circular  muscles. 

(3)  Dermis. 

(4)  Epidermis. 

(5)  Cuticle. 

Sketch  this  cross-section  and  show  all  the  parts  1-7. 


MOLLUSCA 
STUDY  OF  A  LIVE  FRESH-WATER  CLAM  OR  MUSSEL 

1.  Collecting. 

(1)  Mussels  may  be  found  in  the  shallow  water  of  our  ponds 

and  streams,  where  they  are  often  partly  embedded 
in  the  sand  or  mud. 

(2)  They  may  sometimes  ''be  obtained  by  a  long-handled 

rake  from  the  shore  or  from  a  boat."^  But  the  surest 
plan  is  to  don  rubber  boots  and  wade  out  after 
them. 

(3)  As  soon  as  they  are  captured  place  them  in  water  and 

carry  them  to  the  laboratory,  and  put  them  in  the 
tank  with  a  few  inches  of  sand  and  several  inches  of 
water  in  the  bottom. 

2.  Laboratory  Study. 
(1)  Locomotion. 

(a)  Watch  carefully  to  discover  just  how  a  clam  moves 

itself  along. 

(b)  Does  it  leave  a  track?     If  so,  describe  it. 

(c)  What  is  the  direction  of  its  progression? 

(d)  What  is  the  rate  of  its  progression? 

(e)  Place  your  finger  in  the  sand  across  the  path  in  front 
of  the  mussel  and,  by  allowing  it  to  pass  over  your 
finger,  find  out  how  the  "foot"  is  used. 

(f)  Quickly  pick  up  a  mussel  in  locomotion.  Note  its 
foot.     What  does  it  do? 

(g)  Lay  a  clam  on  its  side  on  a  piece  of  glass  or  smooth 
wood. 

(1)  What  does  it  do? 

(2)  Can  it  resume  its  natural  position  and  creep  away? 

Explain. 

^  Galloway's  "  Zoology." 
260 


262  MOLLUSCA 

(2)  Siphons.     Notice  the  fringes  of  the  posterior  margins 

of  the  mantle.  Place  a  tiny  drop  of  ink  above  the 
opening  of  the  siphon  and  note  the  direction  of  the 
current  of  water. 

(3)  Sensitiveness. 

(a)  Gently  touch  the  margins  of  the  siphons.     Are  they 

sensitive  to  touch?     What  do  they  do? 

(b)  Find  out,  by  experiment,  if  they  are  sensitive  to  light. 

(c)  Find  out  if  they  are  sensitive  to  jars  or  to  currents  of 

water. 

MORPHOPHYSIOLOGIC   STUDY   OF  THE   CLAM 

A.  External   Morphology 

1.  The  Shell  externally. 

(1)  Shape?     Use  of  this  shape  to  the  clam? 

(2)  Length? 

(3)  Depth  (dorsoventrally)? 

(4)  Width  (laterally)? 

(5)  Weight  of  clam  with  shell? 

(6)  Weight  of  clam  without  shell? 

(7)  Shell  is  what  per  cent,  of  weight  of  whole  clam? 

(8)  Why  so  much  shell?     Advantage? 

(9)  Why  so  little  body?     Advantage? 

(10)  Disadvantage  of  so  much  shell? 

(11)  Covering  of  the  shell. 

(a)  Color? 

(b)  Use? 

(12)  Hold  the  shell  in  your  left  hand  with  the  two  projec- 

tions (umbones)  from  you.  The  valve  in  your  left 
hand  is  the  left  valve,  the  one  in  your  right  hand  is 
the  right  valve. 

(a)  How  do  the  valves  agree? 

(b)  How  do  they  differ  from  each  other? 

(13)  Concentric  lines  of  growth  about  the  umbones. 

(a)  How  many? 

(b)  Age  of  your  specimen? 

(c)  Do  you  find  other  ridges  in  the  shell? 

(d)  Use? 


264  MOLLUSCA 

(14)  The  Hinge  Ligament.     The  anterior  end  of  the  shell  is 

blunter  than  the  posterior,  the  dorsal  is  thicker  than 
the  ventral.  Identify  the  hinge  ligament  dorsally 
between  the  valves. 

(a)  Color? 

(b)  Structure? 

(c)  Use? 

(15)  Sketch   one   valve   externally   and   indicate   all   the 

points  so  far  made  out. 
2.  The  Shell  internally. 

(1)  Color? 

(2)  Structure? 

(3)  Surface? 

(4)  Any  pearls?     Theory  of  the  formation  of  pearls? 

(5)  Any  lines? 

(6)  Teeth  of  the  shell. 

(a)  How  many  in  right  valve?     In  left? 

(b)  Use  of  these  teeth? 

(7)  Muscle  scars. 

(a)  How  many? 

(b)  Where  are  they  found? 

(c)  Use?     By  what  muscles? 

(8)  Sketch  inside  of  the  shell  and  indicate  all  markings. 

B.  Internal   Morphology 

Kill  the  clam  in  water  gradually  heated  to  about  140°  F.  The 
muscles  relax,  the  foot  protrudes,  and  the  clam  is  easily  exposed 
to  view  for  study.  The  clam  may  be  killed  by  inserting  a  strong 
knife  between  the  valves  near  the  anterior  end  of  the  shell  and 
severing  the  muscles  which  hold  the  shell  closed. 

1.  The  Clam  inside  the  shell. 

(1)  The  mantle  is  found  covering  the  body  and  adhering  to 

the  valves  of  the  shell.  Separate  the  mantle  from 
one  valve  by  inserting  a  scalpel  between  them. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Attachment? 

(c)  Use? 

(2)  The  gills  are  leaf-like  organs  under  the  mantle. 


266  MOLLUSCA 

(a)  Number? 

(b)  Attachment? 

(c)  Use? 

(d)  Young.  One  pair  of  gills  may  be  much  enlarged  and 
filled  with  young  clams,  called  Glochidia.  If  present, 
examine  under  low  power  of  the  microscope. 

(3)  The  Labial  Palpi.     These  are  small  leaf-like  organs 

anterior  to  the  gills. 

(a)  Number? 

(b)  Size? 

(c)  Use? 

(4)  The  Siphons.     The  mantle  is  modified  posteriorly  into 

two  tubes  or  siphons.  The  upper  one  is  the  excur- 
rent  and  the  lower  is  the  incurrent  one.  A  live  clam 
placed  in  a  vessel  containing  sand  covered  with  water 
will  show  the  incurrent  and  the  excurrent  stream  of 
water,  especially  if  a  little  coloring-matter  is  cau- 
tiously added.     Use  of  these  siphons? 

(5)  The  Body.     The  soft  body  with  its  projecting  foot  is 

now  exposed. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Size? 

(c)  Structure? 

(d)  Segmented  or  unsegmented? 

(6)  The  Foot.     Identify  it. 

(a)  Shape? 

(b)  Size? 

(c)  Structure? 

(d)  Use? 

(e)  How  does  the  clam  use  it? 

(f)  Where  must  it  live  to  use  it? 
2.  The  Internal  Organs. 

(1)  The  Digestive  Organs. 

(a)  The  mouth  is  between  the  palps.     Insert  a  small 

probe. 
(1-)  Teeth? 
(2)  Tongue? 

(b)  The    Esophagus   leads   from    the   mouth   into   the 

stomach. 


268  MOLLUSCA 

(1)  Size? 

(2)  Length? 

(c)  The  Stomach. 

(1)  Size? 

(2)  Shape? 

(3)  Use? 

(d)  The  Intestines.     Find  their  beginning  at  the  poste- 

rior end  of  the  stomach,  trace  them  through  the 
heart,  thence  throughout  the  body.  Are  they 
coiled  or  straight? 

(e)  The  Liver  or  Digestive  Gland  is  lobed  and  surrounds 

the  stomach. 

(1)  Size? 

(2)  Use? 

(f)  The  Excretory  Organs  are  the  kidneys  or  organs  of 

Bojanus.  These  organs  are  dark  colored  and  lie 
near  the  pericardial  cavity. 

(1)  Size? 

(2)  Use? 

(g)  Sketch  and  name  the  digestive  organs. 

(2)  The  Respiratory  Organs,  the  gills,  have  been  studied. 

(3)  The  Circulatory  Organs.     The  heart  may  be  seen  to 

pulsate  slowly  in  a  specimen  just  opened.  It  is  on 
the  dorsal  side  and  may  be  seen  through  the  mantle, 
lying  in  the  pericardial  cavity.  The  heart  consists 
of  the  rather  lengthy  ventricle,  through  which  runs 
the  intestine.  The  ventricle  is  joined  by  two  lateral 
thin-walled,  triangular  auricles  which  receive  the 
blood  from  the  gills.  The  arteries  carry  the  blood 
to  all  parts  of  the  body. 

(a)  Identify  and  show  your  teacher  the  organs  of  circu- 

lation. 

(b)  Sketch  and  name  all  parts. 

(4)  The  Nervous  System  is  rather  difficult  for  beginners, 

but  may  be  made  out  in  an  alcoholic  specimen. 

(a)  Demonstrate   to   the   teacher    the   following:    The 

cerebral  ganglia.     Look  between  the  labial  palpi 

at  their  bases,  identify  these  ganglia,  and  trace  a 

nerve  to  the  pedal  ganglia  in  the  foot  near  the 


270  MOLLUSCA 

mouth.     Trace  a  nerve  to  a  third  center,  the  vis- 
ceral or  the  posterior  gangUa,  near  the  posterior 
adductor  muscle, 
(b)  Sketch  the  plan  of  the  nervous  system  of  the  clam. 
(5)  The  Special  Senses.     Do  you  find  evidence  of  special 
senses?     If  so,  of  what  ones? 

A   STUDY   OF  THE   SNAIL   SHELL 

1.  Is  the  shell  univalved  or  bivalved?     Whj^? 

2.  Is  the  shell  right-handed  (dextral)  or  left-handed  (sinis- 
tral)? 

3.  Is  the  spiral  a  flat  one  or  a  long  narrow  one? 

4.  Identify  the  apex.    It  is  homologous  with  the  umbo  of  the 
clam. 

5.  Identify  the  lines  of  growth. 

6.  How  many  whorls  in  your  shell? 

7.  How  many  sutures  has  your  shell? 

8.  What  gives  color  to  the  outside  of  the  living  shell? 

9.  Why  are  dead  shells  white? 

10.  Compare  the  shell  of  the  clam  with  that  of  the  snail, 
giving  five  points  of  similarity  and  five  points  of  difference. 

11.  Do  you  see  any  reason  why  the  clam  has  a  bivalve,  the 
snail,  a  univalve,  and  the  slug,  none,  or  merely  the  vestige  of  a 
shell? 

12.  Sketch  the  snail  shell  and  name  all  parts  present. 

SYSTEMATIC   STUDY  FOR  BRANCH   MOLLUSCA 

1.  The  Skeleton. 

(1)  External,  internal,  or  none? 

(2)  If  it  has  a  skeleton,  of  what  does  it  consist? 

2.  The  Body.     Segmented  or  unsegmented? 

3.  Appendages  or  Limits. 

(1)  Segmented  or  unsegmented? 

(2)  Number? 

4.  This  animal  belongs  to  Branch  Mollusca  because  it  has  the 
following  characteristics:     (Student  name  them.) 


272  MOLLUSCA 

SYSTEMATIC   STUDY  FOR   CLASSES  OF  MOLLUSCA 

1.  Has  it  a  distinct  head? 

2.  If  it  has  a  shell,  is  it  a  bivalve  or  a  univalve? 

3.  This  animal  belongs  to  Class because  it  has 

the  following  characteristics:     (Student  name  them.) 

4.  Consult  descriptive  zoologies  for  Classes  of  Mollusca. 


NDEX 


Abdomen  of  crayfish,  36 

of  grasshopper,  78 

of  spider,  50 
Ameba,  226 
Amphibia,  132 
Animal  behavior,  12 
Annulata,  248 
Arachnida,  48 
Aves,  174 

Bee,  90 
Beetle,  98 
Bird,  174 

air  sacs  of,  186 

brain  of,  192 

ceca  of,  190 

circulatory  organs  of,  186 

cloaca  of,  190 

crop  of,  188 

digestive  organs  of,  188 

ears  of,  180 

endoskeleton  of,  192 

excretory  organs  of,  192 

exoskeleton  of,  180 

eyes  of,  180 

feathers  of,  182 

field  study  of,  174 

kidneys  of,  192 

legs  of,  196 

morphology  of,  178 

muscles  of,  184 

nervous  system  of,  192 

reproductive  organs  of,  192 
18 


Bird,  respiratory  organs  of,  190 

skeleton  of,  192 

voice  of,  176 

wings  of,  196 
Bumble  bee,  90 
Butterfly,  86 

Carapa("e  of  crayfish,  32 

of  turtle,  158 
Ceca  of  bird,  190 

of  fish,  122 

of  grasshopper,  70 

of  starfish,  244 
Cephalothorax  of  crayfish,  32 

of  spider,  4S 
Chordate,  branch,  128 

class,  128 
Cicada,  96 
Clam,  260 
Ctt'lenterata,  234 
Condyles  of  bird,  194 

of  frog,  146 
Crayfish,  28 

abdomen  of,  36 

antennae  of,  32 

antcnnules  of,  34 

aciuarium  study  of,  28 

arteries  of,  38 

body  divisions  of,  32 

circulatory  organs  of,  36 

collecting  of,  28 

development  of,  30 

digestive  organs  of,  40 

27;i 


274 


INDEX 


Crayfish,  ears  of,  42 
eyes  of,  32 
field  trip,  28 
mounting  of,  44 
muscular  system  of,  42 
nervous  system  of,  42 
respiratory  organs  of,  40 
sensation  of,  44 
special  senses  of,  42 

Crustacea,  28 

Dissection  of  bird,  178 
of  clam,  262 
of  crayfish,  32 
of  earthworm,  252 
of  fish,  116 
of  frog,  136 
of  grasshopper,  70 
of  rabbit,  202 
of  starfish,  240 
of  turtle,  156 

Earthworm,  248 

activities  of,  248 

body  cavity  of,  254 

brain  of,  256 

cerebral  ganglia  of,  256 

circulatory  organs  of,  254 

collecting  of,  248 

digestive  organs  of,  254 

excretory  system  of,  258 

foods  of,  250 

girdle  of,  252 

kidneys  of,  258 

locomotion  of,  250 

nephridia  of,  258 

nervous  system  of,  256 

oviducts  of,  252 

respiratory  system  of,  256 

segments  of,  252 

setae  of  feet  of,  252 

typhlosole  of,  256 
Emotions,  16 


Fish,  112 

air  bladder  of,  124 

arteries  of,  124 

brain  of,  124 

ceca  of,  122 

circulatory  organs  of,  124 

collecting  of,  112 

digestive  organs  of,  120 

ear  of,  118 

excretory  organs  of,  124 

eye  of,  118 

fins  of,  116 

food  of,  112 

gill  covers  of,  118 

heart  of,  124 

kidneys  of,  124 

muscles  of,  120 

nervous  system  of,  124 

respiratory  organs  of,  120 

scales  of,  118 

skeleton  of,  126 

skin  of,  120 

special  senses  of,  124 

spleen  of,  124 

Frog,  132 
aorta  of,  144 
arteries  of,  144 
circulatory  organs  of,  142 
cloaca  of,  142 
collecting  of,  132 
digestive  organs  of,  138 
ears  of,  136 
endoskeleton  of,  146 
excretory  organs  of,  144 
eyes  of,  136 
heart  of,  142 
kidneys  of,  144 
limbs  of,  138 
morphology  of,  136 
muscles  of,  138 
nerves  of,  150 
nervous  system  of,  148 


INDEX 


Frog,  reproductive  organs  of,  144 
respiratory  organs  of,  142 
skeleton  of,  146 
skin  of,  138 
spinal  cord  of,  146 

Grasshopper,  70 

Heart  of  bird,  186 

of  clam,  268 

of  crayfish,  28 

of  earthworm,  254 

of  fish,  124 

of  frog,  142 

of  grasshopper,  80 

of  rabbit,  208 

of  turtle,  162 
Hemiptera,  96 
Honey  bee,  90 
House  fly,  92 
Hydra,  234 

Insect  case,  52 

net,  56 
Insecta,  52 
Insecticides,  68 
Insects,  collecting,  54 

field  trip,  58 

life-history  of,  62 

spraying  of,  66 

sprays  for,  66 
Instincts,  altruistic,  14 

egoistic,  14 

Kidneys  of  bird,  192 

of  clam,  268 

of  crayfish,  gg,  Fig.  1,  38 

of  earthworm,  nephridia,  258 

of  fish,  124 

of  frog,  144 

of  rabbit,  214 

of  turtle,  168 
Killing  bottle,  54 


Lungs  of  bird,  186 
of  frog,  142 
of  rabbit,  214 
of  turtle,  168 

Mammalia,  200 
Man,  222 
MoUusca,  260 
Mussel,  260 

Nutrition  of  coelenterata,  236 
of  porifera,  230 
of  protozoa,  226 

Orthoptera,  70 

Pisces,  112 
Porifera,  230 
Protozoa,  226 

Rabbit,  200 

arteries  of,  208 

circulatory  organs  of,  208 

digestive  organs  of,  210 

ears  of,  202 

excretory  organs  of,  214 

eyes  of,  202 

field  study  of,  200 

heart  of,  208 

kidneys  of,  214 

limbs  of,  206 

locomotion  of,  20<) 

mori)hology  of,  202 

nervous  system  of,  218 

reproductive  organs  of,  214 

respiratory  organs  of,  214 

skeleton  of,  214 

skin  of,  206 

systematic  study  of,  21S 
Reptilia,  152 

Scales,  ctenoid,  116 
cycloid,  116 
of  bultcrflv,  88 


276 


INDEX 


Scales  of  fish,  116 

Skeleton  of  bird,  192 
of  frog,  146 
of  rabbit,  214 
of  turtle,  170 

Snail  shell,  270 

Spider,  48 

Sponge,  230 

Sprays,  66 

Squash  bug,  96 

Starfish,  243 

Sunfish,  116 

Turtle,  152 
arteries  of,  152 


Turtle,  circulatory  organs  of,  162 
digestive  organs  of,  164 
ears  of,  156 
eyes  of,  156 
field  study  of,  154 
heart  of,  162 
kidneys  of,  168 
limbs  of,  156 
morphology  of,  156 
muscular  system  of,  168 
nervous  system  of,  168 
reproductive  system  of,  168 
respiratory  system  of,  166 
shell  of,  158 
skeleton  of,  170 


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